Comprehensive Social Science Exam 1 Study Guide: Research, Measurement, and Sampling

Selective observation

Noticing only what confirms beliefs.

Inaccurate observation

Misremembering or misperceiving events.

Overgeneralization

Assuming one case applies to all.

Illogical reasoning

Drawing conclusions without evidence.

Resistance to change

Ignoring new evidence due to tradition or authority.

Systematic observation

Reduces bias through structured methods.

Empirical evidence

Information acquired by observation or experimentation.

Transparent methods

Clear and open procedures in research.

Replication

Repeating studies to verify findings.

Peer review

Evaluation of research by experts in the field.

Falsifiability

The ability to be proven wrong.

Descriptive research

Documents characteristics.

Exploratory research

Investigates new phenomena.

Explanatory research

Identifies causes and effects.

Evaluation research

Assesses programs or policies.

Pseudoscience

Appears scientific but lacks empirical support and transparency.

Quantitative methods

Involves numerical data.

Qualitative methods

Involves textual or visual data.

Basic research

Advances theoretical knowledge.

Applied research

Solves practical problems.

Good research questions

Are feasible, socially important, and scientifically relevant.

Effectiveness in evaluation research

Focuses on the impact of programs or policies.

Theory

A systematic explanation of observed phenomena.

Hypothesis

A testable statement predicting a relationship between variables.

Inductive reasoning

Specific to general reasoning.

Deductive reasoning

General to specific reasoning.

Unexpected findings in research

Can lead to new theories or revised frameworks.

Concepts

Must be translated into measurable indicators.

Nominal

Categories without order.

Ordinal

Ordered categories.

Interval

Equal intervals, no true zero.

Ratio

Equal intervals with true zero.

Sources of Measurement Error

Poor wording, respondent confusion, interviewer bias, instrument flaws.

Measurement Validity

The degree to which a measurement accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure.

Face Validity

Appears valid.

Content Validity

Covers all aspects of concept.

Criterion Validity

Correlates with external benchmark.

Construct Validity

Fits theoretical expectations.

Measurement Reliability

The degree to which a measurement produces consistent results.

Test-retest Reliability

Consistent over time.

Inter-item Reliability

Consistency among items.

Inter-observer Reliability

Consistency across observers.

Authenticity

Reflects genuine understanding of participants' perspectives.

Internal Validity

Are results due to the variables studied?

External Validity

Can findings be generalized?

Why Sample

Populations are too large to study entirely.

Sample Size

Larger samples reduce sampling error.

Probability Sampling

Random selection.

Non-Probability Sampling

Non-random.

Inferential Statistics

Used to draw conclusions about populations from samples.

Population

Entire group of interest.

Sample

Subset of population.

Elements

Individual units in population.

Sampling Frame

List from which sample is drawn.

Population Parameter

True value in population.

Sample Statistic

Estimate from sample.

Census

Data from entire population.

Sampling Distribution

Distribution of sample statistics.

Sampling Error

Difference between sample and population.

Cross-sectional

Data at one point in time.

Longitudinal

Data over time.