modern middle east

Nasserism

A political ideology associated with Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, characterized by Arab nationalism, socialism, and anti-imperialism; aimed to unite Arab countries and promote social and economic reforms.

pan-arabism

A political and cultural movement advocating for the unity of Arab countries and peoples, emphasizing shared heritage and identity.

ba’thism

A political ideology in Syria and Iraq, promoting Arab nationalism, socialism, and the unification of Arab states, emphasizing secularism and modernization.

Revisionist Zionism

more militant and expansionist form of zionism

pharaonism

A nationalist ideology that emphasizes the historical and cultural legacy of ancient Egypt, advocating for the identity and unity of the Egyptian people.

kemalism

A political ideology based on the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, promoting secularism, nationalism, and modernization in Turkey.

islamic modernism

A movement that seeks to reconcile Islamic principles with modern values and ideas, advocating for reform in various aspects of society, including education, governance, and women's rights.

wahhabism

strict islamic reform movement, basis of Saudi state

salafiyyah

A conservative Islamic movement that advocates a return to the practices of the earliest Muslims, emphasizing a strict interpretation of the Quran and Hadith.

the autocratic state

authoritarian governance structures in the Middle East

al-infitah

an economic policy in Egypt that encouraged open-market reforms and foreign investment in the 1970s.

etatism

happened in Turkey, state-led economic development

defensive developmentalism

a strategy used by some Middle Eastern states to strengthen their economies and military capabilities while maintaining political control, inspired by European statecraft models

developmenalist ethos

an ideological commitment to state-led economic development, emphasizing modernization, social justice, state building, and industrialization in the Middle East.

orientalism (said)

a framework for understanding the West's perception and representation of the East, often characterized by stereotypes and cultural misconceptions.

culture talk (mamdani)

a discourse used by political elites to define cultural identities in the context of power dynamics, often to justify policies or actions.

clash of civilizations (huntington)

a theory proposing that future conflicts will be driven by cultural and religious differences between major world civilizations, rather than ideological or economic factors.

roots of muslim rage (lewis)

a phrase used to describe the underlying grievances and historical context that contribute to anti-Western sentiments among Muslims, emphasizing the impact of colonialism and cultural dislocation.

imperialism

foreign control and exploitation of weaker societies

the mandate system

established by the League of Nations after World War I to administer former Ottoman territories, aiming to prepare them for independence.

protectorate

a state controlled and protected by another, often involving military or political oversight.

capitulations

ottoman legal agreements granting special privileges to foreigners

King Fuad I of Egypt

was the first king of modern Egypt, ruling from 1920 to 1936 after the country gained nominal independence from Britain.

King Farouk I of Egypt

was the last king of Egypt, ruling from 1936 until the monarchy was abolished in 1952. His reign was marked by political instability and widespread corruption.

Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt

was the second president of Egypt, He was a leading figure in the Arab nationalist movement and implemented significant social and economic reforms.

Anwar Sadat of Egypt

was the third president of Egypt, He is known for his role in the Yom Kippur War and for signing the Camp David Accords, which led to a peace treaty with Israel.

Hosni Mubarak of Egypt

was the fourth president of Egypt, His rule was characterized by a strong security apparatus and economic liberalization.

Al-Infitah

refers to the economic policy of open-door liberalization implemented by President Anwar Sadat in Egypt during the late 1970s and 1980s, aimed at encouraging foreign investment and boosting the economy.

Arab Socialist Union

was the sole legal political party in Egypt during the presidency of Gamal Abdel Nasser, promoting socialist policies and Arab nationalism.

Camp David Accords

were agreements brokered by the United States in 1978 between Egypt and Israel, leading to a peace treaty and the normalization of relations between the two countries.

Wafd

was a political party in Egypt that played a significant role in the country's politics during the early 20th century, advocating for liberal reforms and Egyptian nationalism.

United Arab Republic

was a political union between Egypt and Syria from 1958 to 1961, aimed at promoting Arab unity and socialism.

Suez Crisis (1956)

was a diplomatic and military confrontation involving Egypt, Israel, Britain, and France over control of the Suez Canal, leading to significant geopolitical shifts in the region.

October War (1973)

was a conflict between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria, aimed at regaining territory lost during the Six-Day War in 1967.

Six Day War (1967)

was a brief but impactful conflict between Israel and its neighboring Arab states, resulting in significant territorial gains for Israel.

King Faisal I

was the first King of Iraq and a prominent figure in the Arab nationalist movement, advocating for independence from Ottoman rule and later British influence.

Hafez al-Assad

a Syrian politician and military officer who served as the President of Syria from 1971-2000, known for his authoritarian rule and significant influence in Arab politics.

Bashar al-Assad

is the current President of Syria, having succeeded his father Hafez al-Assad in 2000. His leadership has been marked by civil unrest and a brutal civil war.

Ba’th Party

a political party founded in Syria in the 1940s that promotes Arab nationalism and socialism, playing a significant role in the politics of several Arab countries.

King Ghazi of Iraq

was the king of Iraq from 1933 until his death in 1939, known for his nationalist policies and efforts to modernize the country.

King Faisal II of Iraq

was the last king of Iraq, reigning from 1939 until his overthrow in 1958, and was known for his attempts to modernize the country and maintain independence.

Saddam Hussein

was the fifth President of Iraq, serving from 1979 until 2003, known for his authoritarian rule, the Iran-Iraq War, and the Gulf War.

Anglo-Iraq War (1941)

was a conflict between British forces and pro-Axis elements in Iraq, aimed at securing British control over the region during World War II.

Arab Legion

was a military force established by the British in 1920, primarily composed of Arab troops, which played a significant role in the defense of Transjordan and later in the Arab-Israeli conflict.

Yasser Arafat of Palestine

was a prominent Palestinian political leader and the chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), known for his efforts in advocating for Palestinian national rights and statehood.

Haj Amin al-Husseini of Palestine

was a Palestinian Arab nationalist and religious leader who served as the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, known for his opposition to Zionism and collaboration with Axis powers during World War II.

David Ben-Gurion

was the primary national founder of the State of Israel and served as its first Prime Minister, playing a key role in the establishment of the state in 1948.

Menachem Begin

was an Israeli politician, founder of the Likud party, and served as the sixth Prime Minister of Israel, known for signing the Camp David Accords with Egypt.

Theodor Herzl

the founder of modern political Zionism, advocating for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.

Vladamir Jabotinsky

a political leader and founder of the Jewish Self-Defense Organization, known for his advocacy of Revisionist Zionism and his vision for a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

PLO & Al-Fatah

political and military organizations representing the Palestinian people, with Al-Fatah being the largest faction within the PLO.

Guerrilla Warfare

a form of irregular warfare where small groups use tactics like ambushes and sabotage to fight larger conventional forces.

UNRWA

the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, providing assistance and protection to Palestinian refugees.

black september

a Palestinian militant organization responsible for high-profile attacks, including the 1972 Munich Olympics massacre.

aliyah

the immigration of Jews to Israel, particularly after the establishment of the state in 1948.

diaspora

the dispersion of Jews beyond Israel, particularly after the destruction of the Second Temple.

nakba (1948)

the term used to describe the mass displacement of Palestinian Arabs during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, resulting in the loss of their homes and lands.

UN Resolution 181 (partition plan)

A United Nations proposal adopted in 1947 recommended the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, leading to the establishment of Israel.

Plan Dalet

a military strategy adopted by the Haganah in 1948 aimed at securing Jewish control over the territory of the proposed Jewish state and dealing with Palestinian resistance.

Haganah

The main paramilitary organization of the Jewish community in Palestine before the establishment of Israel, which played a key role in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.

Palmach

The elite strike force of the Haganah, established in 1941, which played a crucial role in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and in the establishment of the State of Israel.

Irgun

A Jewish paramilitary organization that operated in British Mandate Palestine, known for its more militant tactics compared to the Haganah and involved in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.

Stern Gang (Lehi)

A Jewish paramilitary group that operated in British Mandate Palestine, known for its radical tactics and opposition to both British rule and Arab nationalism during the 1940s.

Mapai

A major political party in Israel, founded in 1930, that played a significant role in the establishment of the State of Israel and was associated with the labor movement.

Balfour Declaration

A statement issued by the British government in 1917 expressing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, which significantly influenced Jewish immigration and the Zionist movement.

Supreme Muslim Council

An organization established in 1921 to represent the Muslim community in Palestine, it aimed to address religious and social issues while promoting Arab nationalism.

White Paper of 1939

A British policy document that limited Jewish immigration to Palestine and aimed to establish a framework for Arab self-governance, reflecting growing tensions in the region.

Yishuv

The term for the Jewish community in Palestine before the establishment of the State of Israel, which played a key role in the Zionist movement and the development of Jewish institutions.

“Land for Peace”

A diplomatic concept proposing that Israel would withdraw from occupied territories in exchange for peace with its Arab neighbors.

Preemptive Strike

A military action taken to prevent an anticipated attack, often employed in the context of Israel's defense strategy.

Fuad Shihab (Lebanon)

served as President of Lebanon from 1958 to 1964, known for his efforts to modernize the country and promote national unity.

rafiq hariri (lebanon)

Former Prime Minister of Lebanon, known for his role in rebuilding the country after the civil war and promoting economic development. his assassination in 2005, which led to widespread protests and political changes.

lebanon’s sectarianism

refers to the political and social divisions among various religious groups in Lebanon, significantly influencing the country's governance and conflicts.

confessionalism

a political system in Lebanon that allocates political power and representation based on religious affiliation, reflecting the country's sectarian divisions.

national pact

an agreement established in 1943 that outlined the political framework of Lebanon, emphasizing the importance of sectarian balance among different religious communities.

za’im

a political leader or chief in Lebanon, often associated with specific sectarian groups, playing a crucial role in the country's confessional political system.

Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia

the founder of modern Saudi Arabia and the first king of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, known for unifying the country and establishing a monarchy based on Islamic principles.

Ikhwan

a group of religious warriors established by Ibn Saud, instrumental in the unification of Saudi Arabia and the enforcement of Islamic law.

Al-Sabah

the ruling family of Kuwait, which has played a significant role in the country's governance and development since the 18th century.

King Abdullah I (Jordan)

the first king of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, known for his role in establishing the state and promoting modernization.

King Hussein (Jordan)

the son of King Abdullah I and the longest-serving monarch in Jordan's history, known for his efforts in promoting peace and stability in the region.

Sultan Abdulhamid II (Ottoman empire)

the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, known for his conservative policies and efforts to modernize the empire during the late 19th century.

Sultan Mahmud II (ottoman empire)

the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, recognized for his extensive reforms that modernized the military and administrative structures in the early 19th century.

abbasid empire

a major Islamic dynasty that ruled from the 8th to the 13th centuries, known for its cultural, scientific, and economic achievements during the Islamic Golden Age.

CUP

Committee of Union and Progress, a political group in the Ottoman Empire that aimed for modernization and reform.

devsirme

a system used by the Ottoman Empire to recruit and train Christian boys as soldiers and bureaucrats, often converting them to Islam.

janissaries

elite infantry units that formed the backbone of the Ottoman Empire's military, originally composed of Christian boys taken through the devsirme system.

timar

a system of land tenure in the Ottoman Empire where land was granted to military officers in exchange for military service, often leading to the collection of taxes from peasants.

mahdi

a messianic figure in Islamic eschatology who is believed to emerge before the Day of Judgment to restore righteousness and justice.

hatt-i serif of gulhane

an imperial edict issued in 1839 that initiated the Tanzimat reforms, aimed at modernizing the Ottoman Empire and granting rights to all citizens.

khedive

a title for the governor of Egypt under Ottoman rule, particularly during the 19th century, who had significant autonomy and was responsible for administrative and economic reforms.

public debt administration

an agency established in the early 20th century to manage and reorganize Egypt's public debt, allowing for greater financial autonomy and reform.

young turks

a reformist political movement in the early 20th century that aimed to modernize the Ottoman Empire and promote nationalism.

sectarianism

the division of people into sects based on religious, ethnic, or cultural identities, often leading to conflict and tension.

UN resolution 242

A United Nations resolution passed in 1967 calling for the withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied during the Six-Day War and the recognition of every state's right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries.

international monetary fund

An international organization that aims to promote global economic stability and growth through financial assistance, policy advice, and technical assistance to member countries.

structural adjustment

A set of economic policies implemented by countries, often under the guidance of the International Monetary Fund, aimed at reducing government spending, increasing revenue, and fostering economic growth.

settler colonialism

A form of colonialism where settlers establish permanent residence in a territory, often displacing indigenous populations and asserting control over land and resources.

what’s the capital of algeria

algiers

what’s the capital of bahrain

manama