Approaches

Behaviourist Approach AO1: 

Behaviourist approach focuses on observable behaviour, arguing internal mental processes can't be scientifically studied and should therefore be ignored. Behaviourists believe all behaviour learnt through interactions with the environment, suggesting humans are born as a blank state (Tabula rasa). Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning where learning occurs through association. A neutral stimulus is paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus, and it produces A conditioned response alone e.g. Pavlov's dogs salivating at a bell. Also found stimulus generalisation, other alarms caused salivation. Skinner proposed operant conditioning where behaviour is shaped by its consequences, positive reinforcement (adding a reward) and negative reinforcement (avoiding something unpleasant) both increase the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring. While punishment (negative acts causing negative consequences) decreases it. Skinner demonstrated this using rats in a Skinner box, pulled lever to avoid shock or get food and this is learned. The approach is highly scientific, using controlled lab experiments with animals and humans to establish cause and effect. This gave psychology great credibility as a natural science.

Behaviourist Approach AO3 CC: 

A strength classical conditioning as an explanation of behaviours that it has practical applications to the treatment of phobias. This is because therapies work by Replacing anxiety (CR) that is learned to a specific stimulus (CS) with the relaxation response. This is important because shows efficacy of behavioural therapies, which eliminates symptoms with counter conditioning. Thus, phobic response learnt from CC. Therefore, it can be argued that CC provides effective explanation for initiation of phobias but fails to explain why phobic responses to stimuli are maintained. 

One limitation with classical conditioning as an explanation of behaviour is that it oversimplifies the process of learning. This because classical conditioning reduces and simplifies the process of learning down to the level of stimulus response links and therefore ignores the interaction of other factors such as biology and cognition in the process of learning. This is a problem because classical conditioning alone fails to explain why some behaviours are easier to learn than others. For example, research suggests humans are biologically prepared to learn associations which are significant to their survival more quickly than associations which are not significant to survival. Therefore, it can be argued that classical conditioning provides a limited explanation for the acquisition of behaviour as it fails to acknowledge the role that biological factors, prior experiences and motivation can have in shaping the behaviours that humans learn. 

Behaviourist Approach AO3 OC: 

A strength of operant conditioning as an explanation of behaviours is it has scientific validity because Behaviourists investigates role of reinforcement in acquisition of behaviours using highly controlled lab experiments, enabling researchers to establish a causal relationship between variables. This is important because by emphasising the importance of scientific processes such as objectivity, replication, behaviourism was influential in the development of psychology as a science. This reinforces that it must be a valid theory. However, there's some criticism of the approach as even though it's used scientific methods it made use of non-human animals which critics suggest tells us little about human behaviour as humans have far greater cognitive complexity and are influenced by. Social and emotional factors that can't be replicated in animal studies. Therefore, it can be argued that operant conditioning is a well-supported explanation of behaviour as the use of rigorous scientific methodology strengthens the reliability of its findings. 

One limitation of operant conditioning as an explanation of behaviour is that it is deterministic. This is because the approach sees all human behaviour as determined by our past experiences to which we've been conditioned. Skinner suggests all we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. This is a problem because Skinner suggests free will doesn't exist, it's simply an illusion. When something happens, we impose a sense of having made the decision but to behaviourists our past conditioning history has determined our outcome. Therefore, it can be argued that this position ignores the influence of conscious decision-making processes on our behaviour. 

Social Learning Theory AO1: 

Bandura believed new behaviours learned through observing others behaviour as well as through direct experience. People observed consequences of theirs and others behaviour to develop hypotheses on behaviours most likely to succeed in a situation. Serves as guide for future behaviour. Vicarious reinforcement is individual learning consequences of action by watching others, then adjust subsequent behaviour accordingly based on observations on likelihood experiencing others outcomes ourselves. SLT bridge between behaviourism and cognitive approach. Cognitive processes mediate learning process to determine if a new response acquires. Attention, extent behaviour notice, retention, how well behaviour remembered reproduction, observers' ability to do behaviour, motivation, Will to perform behaviour. often determined by whether behaviour rewarded or punished. Learning and performance reproduced at a later time. Identification is when relating to model as he feels similar to the model, particularly same-sex models. Models provide examples of behaviour observed by people and reproduced later in imitation. Live models e.g. Parent, peer, sibling, symbolic models. e.g. someone portrayed in media (film character). Imitation is copying attitudes and behaviours modelled by parents and significant others to patterns of behaviour acquired. Likelihood determined by characteristics of Model, observers perceived ability to perform their behaviour and observed consequences. Bandura had 72 kids (three to six years) observing aggressive /non-aggressive model playing with Bobo doll (24 control group had no model). Observed for imitative behaviour in absence of model. Those observing aggressive model were more physically and verbally aggressive. 70% in non-aggressive group had 0 aggression. girls imitated more verbally aggressive acts, boys more physically aggressive acts, 25.8 aggressive acts for boys > 5.5 acts for girls. Thus, behaviour can be learned by imitation, even if not reinforced. 

Social Learning Theory AO3: 

One strength of the social learning theory approaches is it has useful applications as the principles of social learning have been used to increase our understanding of many areas of human behaviour, including criminal behaviour. For example, Akers suggested the probability of someone engaging in criminal behaviour increases when they're exposed to models who commit criminal behaviour. Identify with these models and develop the expectation of positive consequences for their own criminal behaviour. This is important because Akers’ findings can be used to predict and prevent criminal behaviour by identifying and limiting an individual's exposure to criminal models before offending occurs. In addition, Ulrich’s literature review found the strongest cause of violent behaviour in adolescence was association with delinquent peer groups where violence was both modelled and rewarded. Thus, through social learning theory we now have greater understanding of the reasons behaviour could occur in real life and informing strategies to prevent it. 

A further strength of the social learning theory is that it's less deterministic than behaviourist approach as emphasises reciprocal determinism (Bandura). We aren't merely influenced by external environment, but we also exert an influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform. This important because it suggests that some free will in the way we behave. This differs from behaviourist. Approach suggesting all of behaviours based on stimulus response interactions with individuals having no room for cognition - when doing any behaviour, they’re all based on past reinforcement. In contrast SLT holds individuals more accounted for the actions as we can exert an influence on our environment. Thus, the social learning theory offers a more balanced view of human behaviour AS acknowledges the role of past experiences while still preserving a degree of free will and personal responsibility. 

One limitation of the social learning theory approaches is it leads to problems in determining causality because it suggests increased associations with deviant peers increase likelihood an individual will adopt the same values and behaviours. This is a problem as critics argue, the case of delinquency may not be social learning as result of exposure to deviant role models, but the possession of deviant attitudes prior to contact with deviant peers. Siegel and McCormick, suggesting young people who possessed deviant attributes and values e.g. low self-control would seek out peers of similar attitudes and behaviour as they're more fun to be with than their less reckless counterparts. Thus, this challenges the fundamental premise of SLT as it raises the possibility that peer association is the consequence of an individual's prior disposition towards deviance rather than its cause. 

A further limitation of the social learning theory is underestimates the impact of hereditary factors. This because Bandura makes little reference to the impact of biological factors on social learning. Although Bandura claimed natural biological differences influence our learning potential, he also only thought learning itself was determined by the environment. This is a problem because recent research suggests observing learning may be the results of mirror neurons in the brain allowing us to empathise with and imitate others. In addition, one consistent finding in the BOBO experiments was the boy's often more aggressive than the girls. This may be explained by hormonal factors like difference in levels of testosterone, a hormone which is linked to increased aggressive behaviour, although this is not accounted for in social learning theory. Thus, the under-emphasis of biological factors makes SLT a limited explanation of behaviour. 

Cognitive Approach AO1: 

Assumes internal mental processes can't be studied directly, so cognitive psychologists make inferences on these processes indirectly by making judgements based on observed behaviours. Internal mental processes refer to private operations of the mind not directly observable. e.g., memory, perception, thinking. Inference is a process enabling cognitive psychologists to make assumptions on Imp’s that can’t be directly observed. Allows psychologists to conclude on how mental processes operate through indirect observation of behaviour and or evidence. Schema is a package of ideas and info based on experience that is the mental framework for interpreting and organising incoming info. Provides info on expected events and behaviour in specific situations/roles. Theoretical models are simplified visual representations of IMP's using boxes and arrows to indicate cause and effect or the sequence of stages for a mental process. Often incomplete and frequently changed, updated and refined to reflect outcome of further research. Computer models compare how the mind and computers process info. Argues info enters mind through senses: input devices for computers, info received by computer processing to temporary and CPU before hardware storage: humans info temporary held in working memory, then transfer to LTM, processed information on computer displayed via output device: but humans display processed info through behaviour, facial expressions, body movements, speech. 

Cognitive Approach AO3: 

A strength of the cognitive approach is has useful real-life applications e.g. in social psychology research in social cognition help psychologists better understand how we form impressions of others as well as the errors and biases influencing our interpretation of the causes of their behaviour. Also cognitive approach had useful applications to clinical psychology as is used to explain how much of the dysfunctional behaviour shown by people can be traced back to faulty thinking processes e.g. someone with anorexia avoids eating against as irrationally believe nobody will like them if they're fat. This is important as it's led to successful treatment of people suffering from illnesses like depression and OCD using cognitive based therapy where the irrational beliefs of an individual challenged. Thus, the cognitive approach is valuable as it’s applicable to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts. 

Further strength of cognitive approach is it has incredible scientific basis as the use of highly controlled and rigorous methods of study are used so researcher can infer cognitive processes at work. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience meant cognitive psychologists can systematically observe which parts of the brain are activated when different internal mental processes take place using Mirror imaging techniques such as PET & FMRI scans. This is important because in the past data on IMPs lacked objectivity as even though these processes were studied in highly controlled conditions psychologists only infer what was happening through observing participants behaviour in different conditions. however, as cognitive psychology relies on inference of Mental processes rather than direct observation of behaviour it can occasionally suffer from being too abstract and theoretical in nature. Similarly, research studies of mental processes also carried out using artificial stimuli, EG memory tests with word lists that may not represent everyday practise. Research on cognitive processes may lack ecological validity. Thus, despite previous difficulties in studying IMPs directly, the cognitive approach considered highly scientific as it's based on empirical evidence. 

Limitation of the cognitive approach is that it’s criticised for being too mechanical. This because cognitive approach is another uses an analogy of computers to explain how information coded, processed, and stored in human minds, suggesting all information stored in memory should always be available to access in the future. This is a problem because research shown unlike computers, people often can't recall info stored in their LTM unless the information present at the time of encoding is available at the time of retrieval (Encoding specificity principle). Shows human memory influenced by context, meaning and psychological factors, making recall less reliable and more complex. Thus, use of computer models to explain how info processed in human mind insufficient and weakens validity of the approach. 

Further limitation cognitive approaches they lack explanatory value as the approach is only concerned with how IMPs take place and therefore fails to explain the role emotion and motivation have on causing these processes take place. This is a problem as research shown emotional states like anxiety having negative effects on memory recall as heightened states of physiological arousal can prevent people paying attention to environmental stimuli. Thus, the cognitive approach is insufficient as it fails to explain the rational, unpredictable behaviours people display, which is driven by their emotions. 

Biological approach AO1: 

Biological approach suggests cognition, behaviours and emotions have a physical basis as the human mind lives in the brain. biological psychologists investigate the basis of behaviour genetically and influence biological structures and neurochemistry have on behaviour. Assumes behaviour influenced by Genotype, Genetic makeup inherited from parents, which can predispose individuals to certain characteristics /disorders. Genetic influence investigated with twin studies comparing concordance rates of MZ twins sharing 100% genes and DZ twins sharing 50% genes. MZ twins higher concordance rate for behaviour, behaviour likely to have genetic basis. approach is underpinned by evolutionary theory of Darwin proposing an organism's characteristics with survival advantage is more likely to be passed on to future generations through natural selection. sexual selection involved in some behaviour evolving, EG aggression as genes coding for behaviours ensuring reproduction, success of early humans, sexually selected and transmitted to future generations. Role of neurochemistry is behaviour mediated by neurotransmitters such as the excitatory dopamine an inhibitory GABA creating E/I post synaptic potential, changing the likelihood of postsynaptic neuron firing. Main biological structure influencing behaviour is the brain. The frontal lobe focused on speech production, movement generation, thought and learning. Parietal lobe processes Sensory information. Occipital lobe: Visual information processed. Cerebellum focused on coordination, posture, balance. Temporal lobe processes sound and memory. 

Biological approach AO3: 

A strength of the biological approach is that it has useful real-life applications. This is because research into the role of neurochemical imbalance in psychological disorders has led to the development of psychoactive drug treatments which correct this imbalance and minimise symptoms of these disorders, EG SSRI's for treating depression. This is important because it means sufferers can manage their condition and live a relatively normal life rather than remain in hospital and become potentially isolated. Also, research into circadian rhythms and their effects on psychological well-being has led to significant improvements in the working conditions of people who must work on shifts. Thus, the biological approach is useful as it can be applied to a wide variety of practical contexts. 

A further strength of the biological approach is it has a credible scientific basis. This is as it makes use of methods used in the natural sciences, EG lab experiments where scanning techniques are used to observe and measure behaviour. This is important as it allows for high control over extraneous Variables, replicability and objective data adding to the validity of the original findings. However, much of the biological approach relies on twin studies to investigate the genetic basis of behaviour and some argue twin studies provides weak evidence for the genetic basis of behaviour as the higher concordance rates for MZ twins could be due to more similar environments they share in comparison to DZ twins. Thus, the findings from the biological approach are credible and can be relied upon. 

A limitation of the biological approaches is it’s criticised for being too reductionist. This is because biological explanations reduce and simplify the cause of behaviour down to the level of genes or neurochemistry and ignore the interaction of social and psychological factors. This is a problem as while a Reductionist approach lends itself to scientific investigation, it could be argued we can't fully understand behaviour without also considering other factors influencing it. For example, reductionist explanations can't explain why twin studies don't find 100% concordance rates for MZ. Twins. The fact these rates aren't 100% suggests cognitive, emotional and social factors must also influence behaviour. Thus, a more holistic approach needs to be adopted to make this a more comprehensive explanation of human behaviour. 

A further limitation of the biological approach is it’s deterministic. This is because biological explanations suggest human behaviour is governed by internal biological mechanisms the individual can't control. This is a problem as it has implications for the legal system and wider society as one of the rules of law is offenders are seen as legally and morally accountable for their actions as humans are known to have free will, the discovery of a criminal gene removes the responsibility that people have for their actions. However, research counteracts this idea as it's shown we can override these impulses. Even if we feel we want to hurt someone our behaviour can be rationalised and stopped. Therefore, it can be argued genes make it probable we will behave in a certain way but as humans we have a choice of how to behave and this idea is disregarded in the biological approach. 

Psychodynamic approach AO1: 

The psychodynamic approach proposes psychological disorders arise due to. Unconscious conflicts occurring between different aspects of the human psyche. Freud believes abnormality originates from early childhood experiences and fixations in Childs conscious part of the mind (we are aware of responsible for rational thoughts and. Perception). The preconscious acts as a store for memory, psychological Development and info easily brought into the conscious awareness from it. But the unconscious is inaccessible, acting as a repository for repressed memories, desires and instincts, using defence mechanisms to prevent the person being aware of them. Repression involves blocking traumatic memories. Influencing behaviour without the individual knowing of it. Denial is the refusal to accept reality, and displacement is redirecting feelings from the person they're directed to to a substitute target. Personality is structured from the id present from birth operating on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification. The ego develops at two years old based on the reality principle which mediates between the demands of the ID and the Super ego and superego developing at 5, which is our internalised sense of right and wrong based on the morality. Principle. Represents moral standards of the child which are the same as the same sex parent and wrongdoing is punished through guilt. The psychosexual development stages. There is the oral from zero to 18 months, focusing on mouth pleasure, with a conflict of weaning leading to oral fixation EG smoking, nail biting, sarcasm. There's the anal which is from 18 months to three years, which is the bowel control pleasure. Toilet training conflict leading to. Being anally retentive, perfectionist, obsessed or anally expulsive, thoughtless, messy. The phallic stage is from three to five years, which is genital area pleasure. The. Conflict is the Oedipus complex for boys and Electra for girls leading to phallic personality narcissism, reckless, vain. The latent stage from 6 to puberty. There's no pleasure focus, or conflict. Sexual calm while interested in school. finally Genital, which is puberty, and upwards which has a genital pleasure with the conflicts as sexual interests revived and physical maturation leads to difficulty forming specifically heterosexual relationships. There's a case study of Little Hans who had a horse phobia but then had castration anxiety dream where married to the mother which resolved this fear. 

Psychodynamic approach AO3: 

A strength of the psychodynamic approach is it's considered a pioneering approach as the development of psychoanalytic theory represented a huge shift in psychological thinking and the factors driving human behaviour. for example, psychoanalytic theory introduced the idiographic approach as a method of gathering empirical. Evidence and developed the use of observation of behaviour as an alternative to introspection. From these observations, Freud proposed human behaviour and in particular mental illness had psychological rather than biological causes, leading to the development of psychological based therapies. This is important. As. Not all behaviour is driven by biology, so he needs an appropriate theory to deal with that. For example, De Maar ET al. Carried out. A large. Scale review of psychotherapy studies concluding psychoanalysis produced significant improvements in symptoms that were maintained for many years after treatment. Therefore, it is a valuable approach as it gives a different way of looking at human behaviour. 

A further strength of the psychodynamic approach is it's been very influential as alongside the behavioural approach, it has remained the dominant force in psychology in the first half of the 20th century. This is because the psychodynamic approach was used by psychologists to explain key aspects of human behaviour. Including personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender development. Also, this approach drew attention to the way experiences in early childhood, EG, infant attachment affects adult behaviour and the quality of the relationships we have with others. In addition to its therapeutic application, advocates of the approach argue psychoanalysis can be used to explain many aspects of human behaviour outside of psychology. For example, it helps us understand literary characters, EG Jekyll from Jekyll and Hyde. Thus, it has value due to massive societal impacts. In and out of psychology. 

A limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that Freud's psychoanalytic theory is criticised for being. Gender biassed as it claimed men are morally superior to women as they resolve their Oedipus conflict through castration anxiety in the phallic state of psychosexual development. As a result of girls not experiencing castration anxiety, they aren't under the same pressure as boys to form an identification with their same-sex parents, resulting in a weaker superego developing and weaker sense of morality than men. It's therefore argued psychoanalytic theory exaggerates differences between men and women, as Freud believed females compensate for their moral and sexual inferiority by focusing on their physical charms. This caused many psychoanalysts such as Karen Horney to break away from Freudian theory due to the issues arising from Freud’s dismissal of women and their sexuality, as well as the way that he treated many of his female patients. Thus, it's not a valuable theory due to its associated gender bias. 

A limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that Freud psychoanalytic theory is criticised for being culturally biassed. As it's argued by Sue and Sue, psychoanalysis has little relevance for people from non-western cultures. Psychoanalysts believe mental disorders are the result of traumatic memories locked in the unconscious and freeing them through therapy gives the individual the chance deal with them in supportive therapeutic environment. This is a problem as many cultural groups don't value insight in the same way western cultures do. For example, in China a depressed /anxious person avoids distressing thoughts rather than being willing to discuss them openly. This contrasts with western beliefs that open discussion and insights are always helpful in therapy. Thus, the psychodynamic approach has limiting value in non-western cultures who take more private approaches to dealing with disorders and thus is culturally biassed. 

Humanistic Approach AO1

Humans are viewed as fundamentally good and motivated towards self-improvement. Humanistic psychologists argue that humans possess free will, meaning behaviour is the result of conscious choices rather than biological drives or environmental conditioning. Individuals are active agents who determine their own behaviour and life outcomes. The central motivation of human behaviour is the drive towards self-actualisation. Self-actualisation refers to achieving one's full potential and becoming the best version of oneself. Every person possesses an innate tendency for growth, creativity and fulfilment. Abraham Maslow proposed that lower-level deficiency needs must be satisfied before higher growth needs can be pursued. The hierarchy consists of: Physiological needs, Safety needs, Love and belongingness needs, Esteem needs and Self-actualisation. Carl Rogers argued that personality is based around the concept of the self, or self-concept. Mental wellbeing depends upon congruence, meaning agreement between a person's self-concept and ideal self. The smaller the gap between self and ideal self, the greater the psychological health and self-worth of the individual. According to Carl Rogers, children require unconditional positive regard (UPR) from parents and significant others. UPR is love and acceptance regardless of behaviour or mistakes. If parents impose conditions of worth, the child only feels valued when meeting certain expectations. Conditions of worth create incongruence and can hinder self-actualisation.

Humanistic Approach AO3

A strength of the humanistic approach is it's a positive approach as it's based on the idea people can affect change in their lives by choosing to see their situation differently, allowing them to work towards self-actualization. This is important as the idea people have the freedom to change promotes a more positive image of the human condition then alternate approaches which suggest people have no control over their lives, for example Freud believes all humans were slaves to their past and live their lives somewhere between common unhappiness and absolute despair. Thus, the humanistic approach is more valid than others due to its optimistic nature. 

A further strength with the humanistic approach is that it is supported by evidence from Harter ET al who found that adolescents who created a false self in order to gain their parents approval were more likely to develop depression and a tendency to lose touch with their own self. This evidence therefore supports Rogers’ idea that experiencing conditional positive regard can affect the development of an individual's self-worth which can then hinder their ability to achieve self-actualization. Therefore, it can be argued that it's a useful explanation as it demonstrates the link between self-worth and conditional positive regard in influencing our self-actualization. 

A limitation of the humanistic approach is that it lacks scientific validity, as most humanistic psychologists advocate the use of non-experimental research methods to investigate behaviour, making it difficult to establish a causal relationship between variables. This is a problem as without experimental evidence, it's difficult to determine how effective humanistic counselling is and to establish the validity of the concepts that underpin this therapy. For example, whilst research has shown that people experience increased personal growth after receiving humanistic counselling, it is unclear whether these changes happen as a direct result of the therapy or other factors that occur in their life. Therefore, it can be argued that the humanistic approach has limited value for explaining behaviour. 

A limitation of the humanistic approach is that it’s criticised for presenting an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature. This is because critics argue people aren't as inherently good and growth orientated as humanistic theory suggests, and the approach doesn't adequately recognise people's capacity for pessimism and self-destructive behaviour. The view that personality development is directed only by an innate potential for growth is seen as an oversimplification, as is the humanistic assumption that all problems arise from blocked self-actualization. This is a problem, as encouraging people to focus on their own self-development rather than on situational forces may be neither realistic nor appropriate in modern society. Thus, in reality, a person may not grow in relation to the hierarchy as a person may experience ups and downs in their life not accounted for in the humanistic approach, reducing its value in practical application.