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Durkheim (1895)
Crime is inevitable and functional; concepts of anomie and boundary maintenance.
Merton (1938)
People turn to crime due to blocked opportunities.
Cohen (1955)
Working-class boys form delinquent subcultures
Cloward & Ohlin (1960)
Criminal, conflict, and retreatist subcultures.
Gordon (1976)
Crime is a rational response to capitalism
Chambliss (1975)
Laws benefit the ruling class; study on vagrancy laws.
Snider (1993)
Corporate crime is more harmful than street crime.
Taylor, Walton & Young (1973)
Crime is a conscious political act against capitalism.
Hall et al. (1978)
The media created a moral panic about Black muggers to distract from economic problems.
Lemert (1951)
Labelling causes further deviance.
Becker (1963)
Deviance is a social construct; "deviant careers."
Cicourel (1976)
Middle-class youths escape labels due to police bias.
Wilson & Kelling (1982)
Minor disorder leads to major crime
Murray (1990s)
Welfare dependency leads to crime.
Felson (1998)
Crime happens when there is a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of guardianship.
Lea & Young (1984)
Crime is linked to social inequality.
Young (1999)
Late modernity leads to more crime due to instability and insecurity.
Heidensohn (1985)
Women are controlled in public, private, and work life, reducing criminal opportunities.
Carlen (1988)
Women commit crime when the rewards of conformity break down.
Messerschmidt (1993)
Crime is a way for men to express masculinity.
Gilroy (1982)
Crime statistics are biased; Black crime is a response to racism.
Hall et al. (1978)
Moral panic about Black youth.
Bowling & Phillips (2002)
Police discrimination leads to higher stop-and-search rates.
Cohen (1972)
The media amplifies deviance.
Jewkes (2015)
The media distorts crime and reinforces stereotypes.
Castells (1998)
Crime has gone global (e.g., drug trafficking, cybercrime).
Beck (1992)
Global threats like pollution and climate crime.
McLaughlin (2001)
Political, economic, cultural, and human rights violations.
Garland (2001)
The US & UK now use prison to control the poor.
Foucault (1977)
Power is now based on constant surveillance.
Mathiesen (1997)
The many watch the few (e.g., social media surveillance).
Miers (1989)
Identifies patterns of victimisation (e.g., some people are more ‘prone’ to being victims).
Tombs & Whyte (2007
Corporate crime victims are often ignored by the state.
Christie (1986) – The Ideal Victim
Society views some victims as more ‘deserving’ of sympathy than others.
Walklate (2007)
Feminist Victimology** – Focuses on how women are victims of male violence and how the system often fails them.
Mawby & Walklate (1994)
Critical Victimology** – Argues that victimisation is linked to power structures (e.g., the poor and marginalised suffer most).
