PLT (5622) Principles of Learning and Teaching K-6

Knowledge

-acquired information

Cognitive processes

-acquiring new knowledge and skills and being able to apply new learning to new situations and draw conclusions from it

Cognitive Process Functions

-perception

-attention

-language

-memory

-thinking

Transfer

-to apply knowledge to make inferences about new thoughts and ideas

Foundational Theorists

-provide the framework by which all current knowledge of cognitive processes is based

Jerome Bruner

-a constructivist theorist who contributed the 3 modes of representation to the field of cognitive development

1) Enactive Stage: learning through action

2) Iconic Stage: cognition through mental images

3) Symbolic Stage: learning through language

Albert Bandura

-developed the social learning theory and believes learning is a combination of cognition, behavior, and environment

John Dewey

-viewed learning as a series of scientific inquiry and experimentation where children should construct knowledge using hands-on and relevant learning activities

Jean Piaget

-studied cognition in children and identified the stages of development and contributed to schema learning

1) Sensorimotor Stage: children develop the concept of of object permanence

2) Preoperational Stage: children engage in symbolic play

3) Concrete Operational Stage: children are more capable of thinking logically

4) Formal Operational Stage: people are able to think abstractly

Lev Vygotsky

-researched the social development theory with the 2 main tenets being more knowledgeable other (MKO) and zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

-is the space between what a child can do independently and the learning goal

Lawrence Kohlberg

identified the stages of moral development into 3 different levels

Level 1: Preconventional morality has obedience and punishment orientation & individualism and exchange

Level 2: Conventional morality has good interpersonal relationships and maintaining the social order

Level 3: Postconventional morality has social contract and individual rights & Universal Principles

Benjamin Bloom

-contributed to the taxonomy of educational objectives and the theory of mastery learning where 3 levels of domains of learning occur while promoting higher-level thinking

1) Affective: deals with emotions and attitudes

2) Psychomotor: deals with motor skill development

3) Cognitive: deals with acquiring intellect

Learning Theories

-describe how genetics, development, environment, motivation, and emotions affect a student's ability to acquire and apply knowledge

Classical Conditioning

-a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a reflex response through conditioning

-Example: when a teacher rings a bell, the students stop what they are doing and pay attention to the teacher

Operant Conditioning

-provides rewards or punishment as a motivation for desired performance

-Intrinsic rewards: hands-on, inquiry based, and relevant learning activities

-Extrinsic rewards: stickers, praise, and certificates

Metacognition

-thinking about thinking

Schema

-frameworks for understanding

Example: like file folders in the brain that learners naturally sort information into

Self-efficacy

-when a person believes that he or she is capable of achieving a learning goal

Scaffolding

-breaking up the curriculum into smaller pieces and then providing support so that students can acquire mastery

Self-regulate

-to maintain control of one's own emotional response

3 motivational levels:

1) approach

2) avoid

3) attack

Bloom's Domains

-Cognitive domain: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating

-Physical domain:perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex or overt response, adaptation and origination

-Social domain: receiving phenomena, responding to phenomena, valuing, organizing, internalizing values

-Moral domain: preconventional morality, conventional morality, postconventional morality

Inquiry-Based Learning

-based on constructivism and involves asking a thought-provoking question followed by providing opportunities for students to research and discover answers for themselves

-students are active participants

Direct Teach

-teacher-centered approach that involves lectures

Project-Based Learning

-involves increasing the depth of understanding by developing real-world situations to problems

Interdisciplinary Learning

-teaching across content areas in order to build schema and enable students to transfer knowledge to different types of situations

Learning Styles

-ways in which students learn

-Howard Gardner researched 9 categories

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

-verbal/linguistic (language)

-logical/mathematical (patterns)

-spatial/visual (thinks in pictures)

-bodily/kinesthetic (movement)

-musical (rhythm)

-interpersonal (empathy)

-intrapersonal (self-aware)

-naturalist (plants, animals)

-existential (deep thinker)

Exceptionality

-strength or weakness in academic functioning that requires extra attention to meet the needs of the student

Cognitive Disabilities

-impairments in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior

-disability could be mild (IQ 55-70), moderate (IQ 30-55), or severe (IQ below 30)

-causes could be Down syndrome, damages to the brain, or fetal alcohol syndrome

Physical Disabilities

-impairments that require assistance during the school day

-students may need physical therapy, Braille (for students that have visual impairments), assistive technology (for students that have motor skill impairments)

Communication Disabilities

-deficits in speech and language

-students have difficulty forming words and difficulty with comprehension

Behavioral Exceptionalities

-students who are unable to form relationships with others

-students have difficulty recognizing social cues and conforming to expectations

-behavior issues include: ADHD, ED, and CD

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

-prohibits discrimination based on disabilities

-in schools, this includes activities that take place both on and off campus including athletics and extracurricular activities

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

-provides guidelines to schools to help address the individual needs of special education students

-Part B: serves students aged 3-22

-Part C: serves students from birth-3 years

-includes: identification, parental rights, placement decisions, modifications and accommodations, behavior supports, transitioning to adulthood, and handling disputes between parents and schools

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act

-provides services to all students in federally assisted programs who have physical or mental impairments that substantially limit one or more life activities

-Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974: prohibits schools from sharing identifiable information about students

-NCLB: schools had to use high-stakes testing to determine federal funding but was replaced with ESSA: which still requires annual testing but with states determining performance

-Title IX: protects students against gender discrimination

-McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act: provides services without appropriate documentation for students who do not have a consistent home

Intellectually Gifted

-students typically have an IQ greater than 130

-children are alert, curious, and imaginative with advanced vocabulary, memory, and humor but also have a tendency to be impulsive

-children are divergent thinkers

-differentiation in curriculum is expected so students stay ahead

English-Language Learners

-students whose native language is not English

5 Stages of Second-Language Acquisition

1) Beginning: student is just beginning to learn receptive language and learn through pictures and body language; students will listen more than speaking; strategies: choral reading & peer tutoring

2) Emerging: students begin using short phrases; strategies: graphic organizers & labeling; students may fall into code switching: meaning student may slip back into second language while speaking their native language

3) Developing: students develop basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) which is conversational English; strategies: flashcards & choral reading

4) Expanding: students become fluent speakers but continue to struggle with writing and sentences; strategies: practice writing & comprehension

5) Bridging: students will be existed from ELL programs but may need support

Accommodations

-give students access to the same curriculum as their grade-level peers

-Examples: audiobooks, items presented in a larger view, oral instructions, notes provided, visual organizers, calculator, extra time, frequent breaks

Modifications

-changes made to the curriculum or environment because students are so far behind that they are unable to progress using the same curriculum as their peers

-Examples: shortened assignments, modified grading, modified assignments

Edward Thorndike

-his research led to operant conditioning

-coined 3 laws of learning:

1) law of effect: states that pleasant consequences lead to repetitive behavior

2) law of readiness: learners will be resistant to learning before they are ready

3) law of exercise: what is practiced gets stronger, whereas what is not practiced becomes weaker

John Watson

-coined behaviorism: which measures and controls behavior in response to stimuli

-3 emotions of children: fear, rage, and love

Abraham Maslow

-developed needs that would be the unconscious desires that motivate people

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Stage 1: Biological Needs- air, water, food, shelter, comfort, sex, sleep

Stage 2: Safety Needs- security, stability, freedom from fear

Stage 3: Love and Belongingness Needs- relationships

Stage 4: Self-Esteem Needs- success, independence, status, respect

Stage 5: Actualization- personal growth

B. F. Skinner

-expanded on operant conditioning, but focused on responding to the environment

-trained animals

-he concluded that reinforcement must be part of learning behavior

Erik Erikson

-expanded on psychosocial development with focus on stages where the individual must reconcile his or her own personal needs with the needs of society

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

1) Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-18 months): infants learn how to trust themselves and others based on caregivers response

2) Autonomy vs. Shame (18 months-36 mon): toddlers become willful as rules are introduced within a structured environment

3) Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years): children are exposed to peer relationships and begin to develop personality traits

4) Industry vs. Inferiority (5-12 years): children are in school and exposed to new things, new people and are compared to a standard and assessed by others

5) Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years): teenagers may try out different friends and styles to figure out who they are

6) Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40 years): early adulthood individuals learn to love other people

7) Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 years): middle adulthood occurs with careers, family, and community involvements

8) Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 + years): late adulthood reflection on life

Motivational Theory

-driving force behind conduct

Self-Determination Theory

-person with perceived locus of casusality (PLOC)

-people with high PLOC are more in control and are motivated with intrinsic motivation (internal rewards)

-people with external PLOC feel that outside forces are controlling their behavior and are motivated by extrinsic motivation (external rewards)

Attribution Theory

-occurs when internal attributions are assumed when other people make mistakes or are victims, since individuals tend to see others as a predictable stereotype

-Example: victim-blaming

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

-occurs when uneasiness is felt when an individual has conflicting thoughts

-to resolve it, individuals will change their behavior, change their thoughts, or justify behavior

Classic Conditioning

-learning a response to stimuli or environment

-Example: if students view a classroom as safe, they are less likely to miss class and more likely to pay attention

Classroom Mangement

-involves the strategies and procedures that are used to engage and produce positive behavior outcomes for most students

-good CM includes: teaching student expectations, providing engaging instruction, arranging the environment to reduce behavior issues, develop classroom routines, and determine consequences

Positive Reinforcement

-praise and other rewards tailored to students need

Tiered Behavior Management System

-Tier 1: universal support for all students

-Tier 2: extra small group intervention for 10-15% that are not successful with tier 1

-Tire 3: approx. 5% need individual intervention in addition to tier 1 & 2

Self-Motivation

-an individual makes movement toward a goal

-goals should be motivating and attainable

-frequent feedback should be given

Lesson Planning

-involves alignment of standards, assessments, and learning materials

Standards-Based Education

-involves clearly set goals that all students are expected to achieve

US Department of Education Role

-to encourage high standards and a system of accountability for schools

-each state is responsible for adopting its own curriculum standards and accountability

Backward Design

-teachers should plan with:

1) identifying the lesson objective

2) determine assessment

3) determine learning experiences

Cognitivism

-learner receives new information and processes it within his or her existing schema

-students use mapping: organizing thoughts through graphic organizers

Social Learning Theory

-learning is occurring when another, more knowledgeable person engages in modeling so that the students can duplicate

-reciprocal determinism: combo of cognitive factors, environment, and stimuli determines behavior

-students learn through vicarious learning: observing others

Constructivism

-students construct their own knowledge through learning experiences

-advocates supports problem-based learning, inquiries, discovery learning, and scaffolding

Behaviorism

-use of rewards and punishments conditions students to behave and learn

-teachers use intrinsic rewards, extrinsic rewards, and punishment

Scope (of planning)

-outlines learning objectives that will be taught for students

Sequence (of planning)

-order in which learning objectives are taught to maximize student success

Materials for a Lesson

1) learning materials need to be aligned with the standards and assessments

2) understanding students' developmental levels, cultural contexts, and background knowledge

3) check validity

4) check availability

Bloom's Domains of Learning

-cognitive domain

-affective domain

-psychomotor domain

Cognitive Domain (Bloom's Taxonomy)

-Level 1: remembering facts

-Level 2: applying information

-Level 3: making inferences and drawing conclusions

-Level 4: evaluating and defending opinions

-Level 5: creating unique solutions

Affective Domain

-Level 1: awareness

-Level 2: responding

-Level 3: valuing

-Level 4: organization

-Level 5: characterization

Psychomotor Domain

-Level 1: observing

-Level 2: imitating

-Level 3: practicing

-Level 4: adapting

Remediation

-additional support provided to regular education students to bridge gaps in learning specific objectives

-targeted instruction based on the needs of the individual student

-involves: small-group instruction, one-on-one teaching, peer tutoring

-assessments include: error analysis for formal/informal assessments

Enrichment

-opportunity to learn objectives at a deeper level than outlines in the curriculum standards

-students deserve to have challenging and engaging learning experiences

Different Types of Resources for Schools

-technology

-library

-artifacts

-models

-manipulatives

Integrative Framework

-a plan for achieving goals in all subject areas by combining content across disciplines

Interdisciplinary Units

-units of study in which content from all subject areas is integrated

Thematic Units

-integrate curricula across content areas under a general theme

-helps students make connections between different content areas

-building a thematic unit:

1) teacher selects a theme

2) designs assessments and integrates learning activities

3) selects resources

Speech Therapist

-certified professional who diagnoses and treats communication disorders

Physical Therapist

-certified professional who evaluates and treats mobility issues

Occupational Therapist

-certified professional who assesses and provides treatment for the development of life skills among disabled individuals

Paraprofessionals

-trained teacher assistants

Critical Thinking

-looking at evidence with deliberate and analytical thought to make inferences or draw conclusions

-individual must be able to view flood of information that is available on the internet and critique its validity

Creative Thinking

-designed to generate new thoughts, ideas, and solutions to existing problems

-Example: brainstorming

Critical and Creative Thinking Considerations

-planning

-questions

-problem-solving

-memory

Inductive Reasoning

-when students draw likely conclusions by putting together specific circumstances and applying their conclusions to general circumstances

-not always accurate

-Example: Salmon are fish. Salmon are pink. Therefore, fish are pink.

Deductive Reasoning

-when conclusions are drawn by using known information and narrowing it to a specific circumstance

-usually accurate

-Example: Rational numbers are numbers that can be written as a ratio. The number one can be written as a ratio (1:1). Therefore, one is a rational number

Instructional Models

-direct teaching

-indirect teaching

-independent learning

-experimental learning

-interactive learning

Direct Teaching

-teacher-centered instruction in which the teacher focuses on disseminating facts to students

-least effective because students are not constructing their own knowledge

-strategies to use: explicit teaching, drill and practice, lecture, demonstration, and reading, listening, and viewing guides.

Indirect Teaching

-student-centered instruction in which the teacher facilitates opportunities for students to construct their own learning

-strategies to use: problem-solving, inquiry, case studies, concept mapping, reading for meaning, and cloze procedures

Independent Learning

-student-centered instruction that focuses on developing autonomy with minimal teacher support

-mainly an accessory for instruction

-strategies to use: learning contract, research projects, learning centers, computer-mediated instruction, distance learning

Experimental Learning

-acquiring knowledge through experiences, including hands-on learning

-high engaging and gives students opportunities to categorize their learning

-strategies to use: field trips, experiments, games, observations, and simulations

Interactive Learning

-relies heavily on social interaction and cooperative grouping

-social experience and ability to formulate learning into words while working within a group are highly engaging for some students

-teachers should consider: depth of standard, background knowledge, and experience of students

-strategies to use: brainstorming, cooperative learning groups, interviews, discussions, peer practice, and debates

Cognitive Strategies

-concept learning

-categorizing

-comparing

-contrasting

-inferring

-synthesize

-predict

-evaluate

-bias

-generalizing

-summarize

Direct Support for Student Learning

-modeling: teachers show students how to do something

-scaffolding: teacher gradually lets student do things on own

-guided practice: students work together

Indirect Support for Student Learning

-helping student self-regulate skills to monitor their progress

-differentiating instruction promotes student engagement

-coaching

Self-Regulation Steps

1) Learning goals

2) Sub-goals

3) Expectation

4) Coaching

5) Monitoring

6) Celebrating

Student Grouping

-whole class: instruction delivered to all students

-small-group: group of learners with similar instructional needs

-independent learning: activities that are completed autonomously by the student

-one-on-one: when a teacher works with one individual student on a concept

Short-Term Memory

-information that enters the conscious memory but is not stored for recall at a later time

-lasts less than a minute

Long-Term Memory

-information that is stored for a long period and may be recalled

-strategies: repetitions and connections to learning