Introduction to Philosophy, Methods, Branches, Analysis, and Abstraction

Flashcards reviewing the definition of philosophy, its historical Western and Eastern roots, branches, methods of philosophizing, common logical fallacies, and the processes of philosophical analysis and abstraction.

What two Greek words form the word "philosophy," and what do they mean?

Philosophy comes from "philo" (love) and "sophia" (wisdom), meaning "love of wisdom."

What is the formal definition of philosophy as a discipline?

Philosophy is the science or discipline that uses human reason to investigate the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles that govern all things.

What historical transition in 6th-century BCE Ancient Greece marked the birth of Western philosophy?

The shift from "mythos" (mythological explanations) to "logos" (rational inquiry and reason).

Who was the first thinker to coin the term "philosophos" ("lover of wisdom")?

Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE).

How did the ancient Greek Philosophers differ in their goals from the Sophists?

The Sophists taught rhetoric and public speaking to help students win arguments, whereas the Philosophers sought objective truth through human reason, evidence, and logical thinking.

Who is known as the "Father of Western Philosophy," and what was his famous quote regarding an unexamined life?

Socrates (469–399 BCE), who famously stated: "The unexamined life is not worth living."

Which ancient Greek thinker founded The Academy and developed the Theory of Forms?

Plato (427–347 BCE).

Who is recognized as the "Father of Logic" and emphasized empirical observation and evidence?

Aristotle (384–322 BCE).

Who founded Confucianism, and what key values did he teach?

Confucius (551–479 BCE), who emphasized moral character, respect, filial piety, and social harmony.

Who was Laozi, and what primary concept did he introduce in Taoism?

Laozi (6th Century BCE) was the founder of Taoism who introduced the concept of the "Tao" (The Way), representing the natural order of the universe.

What foundation did Siddhartha Gautama establish to address and overcome human suffering?

Siddhartha Gautama (563–483 BCE), the founder of Buddhism, introduced the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.

What foundational concepts are explored in Hindu Philosophy by the ancient Hindu Sages (Rishis)?

Dharma (duty), karma (action and consequence), atman (self), Brahman (ultimate reality), and moksha (liberation).

What is the core focus of Western Philosophy compared to Eastern Philosophy?

Western Philosophy focuses on reason, logic, critical questioning, and searching for objective truth ("What is true?"), while Eastern Philosophy emphasizes reflection, self-understanding, moral character, and achieving inner harmony ("How should I live?").

What is Metaphysics, and what guide question does it address?

Metaphysics is the study of reality and existence (including the mind, time, space, and God), guided by the question: "What is real?"

What is Epistemology, and what guide question does it explore?

Epistemology is the study of knowledge, how it is acquired, and its limits, guided by the question: "How do we know?"

How did Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart summarize the essence of Ethics?

"Ethics is knowing the difference between what you have a right to do and what is right to do."

What is Logic as a branch of philosophy?

Logic is the study of the principles of correct reasoning, helping to analyze arguments and distinguish valid reasoning from invalid fallacies.

What does Aesthetics examine, and what is its guide question?

Aesthetics examines beauty, taste, art, and aesthetic experience, guided by the question: "What makes something beautiful?"

What core topics are studied within Political Philosophy?

Government, political authority, justice, laws, rights, freedom, and the responsibilities of citizens.

What elements constitute the Tripartite Theory of Knowledge?

Justified True Belief.

According to the Correspondence Theory of Truth, when is an idea or claim considered true?

When it corresponds to reality or the actual state of affairs.

What defines the Coherence Theory of Truth?

A claim is true if it possesses internal consistency and makes sense within a given system or context.

How does the Pragmatic Theory of Truth evaluate whether a belief is true?

It judges truth by whether an idea works in practice, produces useful real-world results, and can be verified through experience.

What is the key distinction between a truth and an opinion?

Truth is an objective, verifiable, and justifiable claim grounded in reality, whereas an opinion is a subjective view or judgment resting on grounds insufficient to produce complete certainty.

What is the primary methodology of the Socratic Method?

Asking continuous, probing questions to uncover underlying assumptions and expose logical contradictions.

Who established the Phenomenological Method, and what does it involve?

Edmund Husserl established it to focus on direct human consciousness and lived experience while bracketing biases and assumptions (epoché).

What is Cartesian Doubt (Methodic Doubt), and what famous principle was derived from it?

Developed by René Descartes, it is the systematic doubting of every belief that can possibly be doubted until reaching an indubitable foundation, producing the statement: "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am").

What is the Ad Hominem fallacy?

Attacking the personal character or background of the person making an argument instead of addressing the argument itself.

What is the Ad Baculum fallacy?

Using threats of force or undesirable consequences to advance or force an argument.

What occurs in a Petitio Principii (Begging the Question) fallacy?

The argument uses circular reasoning, assuming that the very claim being proven is already true.

What is the Ad Verecundiam fallacy?

Appealing to an authority figure who is not actually qualified or relevant to the subject matter.

How do the Fallacy of Composition and Fallacy of Division differ?

Composition assumes that what is true of a part must be true of the whole, whereas Division assumes that what is true of the whole must be true of each part.

What is a Straw Man fallacy?

Distorting an opponent's argument into an extreme, exaggerated version and then attacking the distorted version.

What is a Red Herring fallacy?

Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention away from the original argument.

What is Philosophical Analysis?

The systematic practice of investigating and examining an idea before accepting it by clarifying concepts, testing logical consistency, and evaluating evidence.

What quote from Ludwig Wittgenstein highlights his view on conceptual clarification and language?

"The limits of my language mean the limits of my world."

What is Philosophical Abstraction?

The intellectual process of identifying essential patterns, deeper meanings, and universal principles from concrete, specific experiences.

According to John Dewey, how do human beings derive learning from experience?

Dewey taught reflective generalization, stating: "We learn not merely from experience but from reflecting upon experience."

What are the 5 steps in the process of philosophical abstraction?

1. Gather concrete examples, 2. Identify similarities and patterns, 3. Remove non-essential details, 4. Discover the essential pattern, 5. Formulate a universal principle.

How do Philosophical Analysis and Philosophical Abstraction differ in their primary goals?

Philosophical Analysis clarifies concepts, examines assumptions, and evaluates arguments to seek rational judgment; Philosophical Abstraction discovers patterns, derives principles, and extracts universal wisdom from experience.