phsl 301 exam 2

Functions of blood

transport immune cells, gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones, clotting factors, regulate body temp, protects against disease, regulates pH and water content, MAJOR source of protection (WBC and clotting)

You go to the mountains for a 2 week vacation. During this time your body needs to acclimate to the lower oxygen content. What will happen?

Your kidneys while begin to produce erythropoetin (EPO). EPO stimulates RBC production to increase oxygen transport in the blood

You go to the doctor to have a routine blood test. They collect your blood and centrifuge it. What would be the largest layer?

Plasma. It is 55% of the total blood, making up the largest component.

What does TPO stand for/do?

Thrombopoetin is produced by the liver to stimulate platelet formation

What do the formed elements consist of?

erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets

Which plasma protein attacks viruses and bacteria (antibodies)

globulins

What does albumin do?

Most abundant; it is a carrier for fatty acids and certain hormones. It regulates bp, blood flow, and fluid balance

What do globulins do?

aka immunoglobulins; they are carrier proteins for lipids, iron, and fat-soluble vitamins. Gamma globulins function to attack viruses and bacteria (antibodies)

What does fibrinogen do?

it is essential in blood clot formation

What is a physical characteristic of erythrocytes?

they have a biconcave disc-like structure

What type of specialized cell is an RBC?

specialized for carrying gases

Can RBC’s replicate?

No, they lack a nucleus and organelles so they cannot respirate and have a short life span (120 days)

What do RBC’s do because they don’t have a mitochondria?

They use anaerobic respiration since they don’t have mitochondria so they do not use the oxygen they are carrying

What does more RBC’s mean in terms of viscosity

The more RBC’s present, the higher the blood viscosity

What is hemoglobin?

It is the oxygen carrying component of the RBC

What is hemoglobin composed of?

4 globin chains (bind the ring-like heme group), 4 heme molecules (each has an iron in the center), and each iron can bind one oxygen so each heme can bind ONE o2 and each hemoglobin can bind FOUR o2

What color does heme turn when o2 is bound to Fe?

bright red

Oxygenation of blood

the lungs oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the capillaries where it binds to the iron of the hemoglobin. This is OXYHEMOGLOBIN and will have a red color

What happens to hemoglobin in the tissues?

The process of oxygenation is reversed; oxygen DETACHES from the hemoglobin causing it to return to its normal shape and become dark red. This is DEOXYHEMOGLOBIN

True/False: Precursor (blast) cells can differentiate into any of the formed elements

FALSE

What does the lymphoid line of lymphoid stem cells produce?

B-cells, T-cells, and NK cells

Megakaryocytes break off pieces to form what?

platelets

What are types of granulocytes?

Basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils

Your patient needs a blood transfusion. They have A- blood. What kind of blood could you give them?

O- blood

An increase in what leukocyte would most likely represent a VIRAL infection

lymphocytes and monocytes

What would make someone’s neutrophil count increase?

during bacterial and fungal infections, burns, stress, and inflammation; phagocytosis of ENTIRE pathogen

What would make someone’s eosinophil count increase?

during parasitic infections and allergies; phagocytosis of allergens and release of enzymes that destroy parasite

What would make someone’s basophil count increase?

allergies, leukemias, cancers; secrete histamines and heparin (anticoagulant for mobility of WBC)

What would make someone’s lymphocyte count increase?

in viral and bacterial infections, cancers; destroy cancer and viruses, secrete antibodies and provide immune memory

What would make someone’s monocyte/macrophage count increase?

in viral infections and inflammation; monocytes differentiate into macrophages when they leave the blood and enter tissues; phagocytize pathogens and debris

Where is the heart located?

in the mediastinum spanning from the 2nd to 5th intercostal space

What is the pericardium composed of?

Fibrous pericardium that protects the heart and anchors it in the mediastinum, and the serous pericardium and the visceral pericardium with a fluid layer in between that helps reduce friction during movement

Layers of heart wall superficial to deep

Epicardium, myocardium, endocardium

What is the remnant structure from the embryo that was used to shunt blood from the right to left atrium

fossa ovalis (was the foramen ovale before it closed)

What was the fossa ovalis used for in embryo?

It shunts blood from R to L atrium in embryo, thus bypassing the pulmonary circulation

What is the ductus arteriosus?

a group of small vessels found in the embryo to shunt blood from the pulmonary artery into the aorta, thereby bypassing the non-functioning fetal lungs

What does the ductus arteriosus turn into after birth?

ligamentum arteriosum

Semilunar valves

Pulmonary found between R vent and pulm. trunk; Aortic found between L vent and aorta. When ventricles contract, it pushes open the valve. When the ventricles rest, the back flow of blood fills up the cups of the valve, causing it to close

Where is the tricuspid valve located?

between the right atria and ventricle

What are the chordae tendinae and what do they do?

They are fibers that connect to the AV valves, and also attach to the papillary muscles in the ventricles

When are the AV valves open?

When the ventricles are relaxed

What prevents the AV valves from prolapsing?

The papillary muscles contract, which pull on the chordae tendinae

Fibrous skeleton of the heart

It is a network of collagen and elastin; it provides structural support, forms fibrous rings for valves to attach, provides a framework for cardiac muscle attachment, and acts as an electrical insulator

What is the correct order for the cardiac conduction system?

SA node, AV node, AV bundle (HIS), bundle branches, purkinje fibers

The SA node acts as the natural pacemaker of the heart and has a rhythm of around 90-100bpm, yet the normal heart rate is only 65-80bpm. Why is this?

The parasympathetic neurons slow down the heart rate via the VAGUS nerve

Chemicals that change the heart rate are known as

chronotropic chemicals

Examples of chronotropic chemicals?

norepinephrine/epinephrine; caffeine and nicotine, thyroid hormone, and beta blockers (like propanolol) and acetylecholine

Characteristics of ARTERIES

Transport blood AWAY from heart, usually oxygenated (EXCEPT pulmo ARTERIES), thicker walls, smaller lumens, higher bp, regulates systemic bp and blood flow

Characteristics of VEINS

Transport blood TOWARDS the heart, usually DEoxygenated EXCEPT pulmo veins, thinner walls that contain VALVES, bp is lower, does NOT regulate bp and blood flow

Characteristics of Tunica Intima

Endothelium, basement membrane, internal elastic lamina (ONLY IN ARTERIES)

Characteristics of Tunica Media

Smooth muscle, external elastic lamina (ONLY ARTERIES)

Which class of arteries has the largest effect on blood pressure?

arterioles

Which capillary is found in most tissues and has endothelial cells with tight junctions that have intercellular clefts?

Continuous

fenestrated capillaries

found in kidneys and small intestine; they are more permeable for rapid absorption and filtration due to fenestrations

sinusoids

the most permeable of capillaries; they are fenestrated with few tight junctions so they allow for larger things like blood cells and proteins to get through the capillary wall. They are found in the liver, spleen, and rbm

What helps veins bring blood back to the heart?

Contraction of skeletal muscle to push blood back to the heart, valves to prevent backflow, and pressure changes in the abdominal and thoracic cavity

blood flow to the arm

Subclavian>Axillary>Brachial>Radial and Ulnar

blood flow to the leg

External iliac>femoral>popliteal>anterior and posterior tibial

What artery supplies the small intestine and right side of the colon?

Characteristics of Lymphatic Capillaries

they have a unique structure that allows interstitial fluid to come into the vessel but not escape, have endothelial cells that overlap one another, join together to form lymphatic vessels

paired lymphatic trunks

R & L jugular, R & L subclavian, R & L bronchomediastinal, R & L lumbar. The only one without a paired trunk is the intestinal trunk

thoracic duct

it begins as the cisterna chyli in the abdominal region, it drains the ENTIRE lower half of the body INFERIOR to the ribs + the L chest, arm, head, and neck, and it drains into the junction of the L internal jugular and subclavian veins

Which organs filter lymph?

lymph nodes

Function of red bone maarrow

where lymphocytes are produced

Function of thymus in cells

Where the T-lymphocytes mature

What are lymph nodes?

an encapsulated lymph organ that filters lymph

What does the spleen do?

it is an encapsulated lymph organ that acts as a blood reservoir; disposes of OLD rbc’s and filters blood

function of lymphatic nodules

egg shaped masses of lymphatic tissue that are NOT surround by a capsule

Where are the palatine tonsils found?

the oropharynx

What do tonsils do?

They help destroy pathogens inhaled or brought in by food; They also contain tonsilar crypts where bacteria can be trapped and destroyed

Where are pharyngeal tonsils (aka adenoids) found?

They are found in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx

Where are lingual tonsils found?

They are found at the base of the tongue

What does the white pulp of the spleen do?

It is filled with lymphocytes, macrophages, and splenic fibers that surround branches of the splenic artery; B and T cells carry out immune functions, and macrophages destroy blood-borne pathogens

What does the red pulp of the spleen do?

It contains blood filled venous sinuses and splenic tissue that contain macrophages; It removes old rbc’s by macrophages and stores platelets

What type of immunity are T-cells?

Adaptive immunity

Innate immunity

skin, mucus membranes, phagocytes, NK cells, inflammation, antimicrobial proteins, fever

Humoral immunity

B cells

The usage of oxygen by the cells to provide energy is called

cellular respiration; when o2 is actually used by the cells to make ATP via aerobic respiration

pulmonary ventilation

breathing in and out; movement of air into and out of the lungs

external respiration

between air and blood (o2 loading, co2 unloading)

internal respiration

between blood and lungs (ECF) (o2 unloading, co2 loading)

upper respiratory tract

nasal cavity, pharynx

lower respiratory tract

larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

What do the ventricular (vestibular/false vocal chords) do?

help protect objects from entering the trachea and prevents air from being forced out of the thoracic cavity when holding your breath against pressure; they are superior to vocal folds

vocal folds (true vocal chords)

contains the vocal ligament and vocalis muscles, involved in voice production, movement of intrinsic muscles of larynx move vocal ligaments which causes different sounds to be produced

conducting zone of respiratory tract

secondary lobar branches (R-3 L-2), tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles

respiratory zone of respiratory tract

respiratory bronchioles and alveoli

respiratory membrane

is made up two layers of squamous epithelium, the alveolar capillary walls, and their basement membranes; it is also where gas exchange occurs

what kind of epithelium do the primary, secondary, and tertiary bronchi have?

ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

what kind of epithelium do the large bronchioles have?

simple columnar

what kind of epithelium do small bronchioles have?

simple cuboidal epithelium

what kind of epithelium do respiratory bronchioles and alveoli have?

simple squamous epithelium

What happens in distal bronchioles?

cartilaginous rings disappear and smooth muscle increases

inspiration

gases flowing INTO the lungs

expiration

gases flowing OUT of the lungs

what is air flow driven by?

concentration gradients where a gradient is going DOWN from high pressure to low pressure; the volume and pressure are inversely proportional

During normal inspiration, what contracts to increase the size of the thoracic cavity?

the diaphragm and external intercostals

medulla’s role in respiratory control

rhythmicity center of breathing

inspiratory neurons

send action potentials for 2 seconds to the muscles of inspiration, phrenic nerve to the diaphragm, and intercostal nerves to the external intercostals

expiratory neurons

activated during FORCED expiration to send action potentials to the muscles involved there