Thresholds 2 and 3 Test: Stars, Galaxies and the Formation of Elements

DW 2025

Thermodynamics

branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat, work, temperature, and energy

The first law of thermodynamics

the amount of energy in the universe will never change

The second law of thermodynamics

states that all free energy will eventually be turned into heat energy, meaning that at some point in time in the universe, there will only be unstructured energy and no structured energy (free energy)

free energy

structured flows of energy (has the capacity to do things)

heat energy

unstructured flows of energy

How does the distinction between “free energy” and “heat energy” relate to the first law of thermodynamics?

The law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed (there is always going to be the same amount of energy in the universe) This distinction emphasizes that free energy is available to do work, while heat energy represents energy that has become disordered and is no longer useful for work.

How does the distinction between “free energy” and “heat energy” relate to the second law of thermodynamics?

The law states that all free energy will eventually be turned into heat energy, meaning that there will only be heat energy at some point in time in the universe. This relates to the distinction between free energy and heat energy, as free energy can be converted into work, while heat energy contributes to disorder and is considered unusable for doing work. Meaning the world is consistently moving towards more entropy.

Importance of the metaphor: “Comparing the building structures of atoms from quarks in the moments after the Big Bang as the universe cooled as wet ceramic pots being solidified as fired pots”

This metaphor illustrates how the formation of atomic structures involves a cooling process similar to ceramics, highlighting the transition from chaotic quarks to organized matter (atoms) in the universe's evolution.

How does David Christian reconcile “entropy” with the emergence of new complexity in the universe

• Entropy demands more energy from structures as they become more complex

• As complex structures require more free energy, they will eventually dissolve into heat energy (Second Law of Thermodynamics), larger the structure the more energy

How do the stars light up?

variations in density of atoms (after the Mini-Threshold) make hot temperatures and density that cause nuclear fusion, which generates energy, leading to the light and heat emitted by stars (protons fusing in center)

Mini-Threshold

380,000 years after the Big Bang began a phase in the universe's evolution where atomic structures formed

What were the “Goldilocks conditions” for the development of all the new elements of the periodic table?

the conditions that dying stars (supernova) provided: very high temperatures and extreme density (pressure)

how the diverse ingredients + the precise arrangement = emerging complexity

DI: atoms(different elements, building blocks of everything) + PA: right conditions (desnity, tempurature) = EC: New elements, new stars

Strong Nuclear Forces

hold protons and neutrons together in an atomic nucleus

Galaxies

large systems of stars, gas, and dust bound together by gravity, containing billions of stars and often forming star clusters

clusters (atoms)

leads to density and extreme temperatures which leads to stars

Electromagnetism

a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles

clusters (stars)

groupings of stars that are held together by gravity

Super clusters

large groups of galaxies that are bound together by gravity and can contain dozens to thousands of galaxies (largest structures in the universe)

Birth of the First Stars:

• atoms scattered randomly around universe and more densly packed atoms generate heat and pressure

• The pressure and temperature get so high that nuclear fusion starts, and the star is born.

Life of a Star:

• Main Sequence: The star spends most of its life fusing hydrogen into helium

• Over time, the hydrogen runs out, and the star becomes unstable, expanding into a red giant or supergiant (if it’s a very big star).

• In this phase, the star fuses heavier elements like carbon and oxygen.

Death of a Star:

• Big stars go out with a supernova (a massive explosion) that creates heavy elements (like gold and iron).

• After a supernova, the core can collapse into a neutron star or, if very massive, become a black hole.

• Red Giants can shrink into White Dwarfs and they begin to lose energy until the core collapses on itself

Two types of supernovas:

• Supernova Type 1a: When a white dwarf is pulled into a nearby star, it explodes in a supernova, creating elements and helping astronomers measure star distances.

• Core-collapse Supernova: When massive stars reach the end of their life, their iron core collapses under gravity, causing a huge explosion with extreme temperatures and energy.

What do Supernovas make?

Supernovas create heavy elements (like gold and iron) and scatter them into space. They can also leave behind neutron stars or black holes.

What is the Main Sequence?

The cycle of a stars life that most stars experience where they are fusing hydrogen into helium at its core

Comparing free energy to an uncoiling spring

As the coil unsprings (as free energy does work), it loses its ability to do work and it’s structure becomes disordered and unstable (UNSTABLE, NOT CONSERVED) loses order as it shifts into heat energy