unstructured interviews

Unstructured interviews differ from the structured interviews- how?

Unstructured interviews differ from the structured interviews:

• Rather than having to follow the fixed, standardised format of a structured interview, the interviewer is free to vary the questions, their wording or order as seems appropriate to the situation.

• They can pursue whatever line of questioning they wish, probing for further details, asking follow-up questions and so on.

Arguably, what is the main attraction of unstructured interviews?

Arguably, the main attraction of unstructured interviews is that they can produce rich, detailed qualitative data that give an insight into the meanings and life-world of the interviewee.

Practical issues of unstructured interviews - ✓strengths

✓- Their i____ allows the interviewer to develop a r____ (relationship of t___ and u____).

• This helps to put the interviewee at e____ and e____ them to open up, and is particularly u____ when researching s___ topics.

• Empathy can enable interviewees to discuss difficult subjects such as a____.

✓- Unstructured interviews make it much easier for interviewer and interviewee to check do what?

• If the interviewee doesn't u____ a question, it can be e____. If the interviewer doesn't understand an answer, they can ask f____-u____ questions to clarify matters

✓- They are very f____.

• The interviewer is not r____ to a fixed s____ of q____, but can explore whatever seems i____.

• The researcher can formulate new h____ and put them to the test as they a____ during the interview

• The interviewee has more o____ to speak about those things they think are important.

✓They are useful where the subject is one we know l____ about, because they are o____-e____ and e____

• Some sociologists use unstructured interviews as a s____ p_____ to develop their i____ ideas before using more structured methods

Practical issues of unstructured interviews - ✓strengths

✓- Their informality allows the interviewer to develop a rapport (relationship of trust and understanding).

• This helps to put the interviewee at ease and encourage them to open up, and is particularly useful when researching sensitive topics.

• Empathy can enable interviewees to discuss difficult subjects such as abuse.

✓- Unstructured interviews make it much easier for interviewer and interviewee to check they have understood each others meanings.

• If the interviewee doesn't understand a question, it can be explained. If the interviewer doesn't understand an answer, they can ask follow-up questions to clarify matters

✓- They are very flexible.

• The interviewer is not restricted to a fixed set of questions, but can explore whatever seems interesting.

• The researcher can formulate new hypotheses and put them to the test as they arise during the interview

• The interviewee has more opportunity to speak about those things they think are important.

✓They are useful where the subject is one we know little about, because they are open-ended and exploratory

• Some sociologists use unstructured interviews as a starting point to develop their initial ideas before using more structured methods

Practical issues of unstructured interviews - ✘limitations

✘- T____ needs to be more t____ than for structured interviews.

• Interviewers need to have a background in sociology - why?

• Interviewers also need good i_____ skills to establish r____ with i____.

• All this adds to the c____.

✘- They take a l____ t____ - often s___ h_____ each.

• This limits the number that can be c____ o___ and means the researcher will have a relatively s____ s_____.

• ✘- They produce l______ a_____ of d____, which can take time to a_____
  There are no pre-coded answers- why is this bad?

Practical issues of unstructured interviews - ✘limitations

✘- Training needs to be more thorough than for structured interviews.

• Interviewers need to have a background in sociology so they can recognise when the interviewee has made a sociologically important point and can probe further with appropriate questioning.

• Interviewers also need good interpersonal skills to establish rapport with interviewees.

• All this adds to the cost.

✘- They take a long time - often several hours each.

• This limits the number that can be carried out and means the researcher will have a relatively small sample.

• ✘- They produce large amounts of data, which can take time to analyse
  There are no pre-coded answers, making analysis and categorisation of data time-consuming and difficult.

Theoretical issues

• A major factor in deciding whether to use unstructured interviews is the sociologist's methodological and theoretical perspective.

• While who? reject their use, who? favour unstructured interviews.

• The key criterion by which i____ judge the usefulness of a method is how far it produces v___ (t____ and a___) data.

Theoretical issues

• A major factor in deciding whether to use unstructured interviews is the sociologist's methodological and theoretical perspective.

• While positivists reject their use, interpretivists favour unstructured interviews.

• The key criterion by which interpretivists judge the usefulness of a method is how far it produces valid (true and authentic) data.

Theoretical issues → interpretivism

• Interpretivists are concerned with understanding a____' m_____.

• They prefer to use qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews, why?

Theoretical issues → interpretivism

• Interpretivists are concerned with understanding actors' meanings.

• They prefer to use qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews, because they regard these as producing a more valid picture of how actors give meaning to their actions.

Theoretical issues → interpretivism

Validity through involvement

• For interpretivists, valid data can only be obtained how?- understanding only comes through i____. - unstructured interviews allow us to do this.

• By becoming i_____ and developing a r____ with the interviewee, we can see the w_____ through their e____ and appreciate what is i____ to them and why they act as they do.

Theoretical issues → interpretivism

Validity through involvement

• For interpretivists, valid data can only be obtained by getting close to people's experiences and meanings - understanding only comes through involvement. - unstructured interviews allow us to do this.

• By becoming involved and developing a rapport with the interviewee, we can see the world through their eyes and appreciate what is important to them and why they act as they do.

Theoretical issues → interpretivism

Grounded theory

• Interpretivists such as G_____ and S____ (1968) reject the positivist idea of what?

• They argue that it is important to approach the research with an open mind; why?

• In their view, we should develop grounded theory. - what is this?

• In this view, unstructured interviews are an ideal r_____ t____, particularly when investigating u____ subjects.

• They allow us to ask whatever q_____ we like, and to pursue lines of e____ that appear i_____ as and when they a_____ - unlike a structured interview, with its f____ s_____ of q_____.

• Unstructured interviews thus fit well with the interpretivist view of research as a f_____, o____-e____ and o____-m____ process of exploration.

Theoretical issues → interpretivism

Grounded theory

• Interpretivists such as Glaser and Strauss (1968) reject the positivist idea that research involves beginning with a fixed hypothesis that we then test by collecting data, for example through a set of predetermined questions.

• They argue that it is important to approach the research with an open mind; otherwise we are unlikely to discover the truth about the situation or the actors ' meanings.

• In their view, we should develop grounded theory. That is, we build up and modify our hypothesis during the actual course of the research itself, based on the facts we discover as we learn more about the subject.

• In this view, unstructured interviews are an ideal research tool, particularly when investigating unfamiliar subjects.

• They allow us to ask whatever questions we like, and to pursue lines of enquiry that appear important as and when they arise - unlike a structured interview, with its fixed set of questions.

• Unstructured interviews thus fit well with the interpretivist view of research as a flexible, open-ended and open-minded process of exploration.

Theoretical issues → interpretivism

The interviewee's view

• The absence of a p____-s___ structure of f___ questions gives interviewees f____ to raise i____ and discuss what is i____ to them.

• This may bring fresh i____ that had not previously occurred to the s____.

• Also, the interviewer's p____ and e_____ can help the interviewee to f____ their thoughts more clearly.

• The open-ended questions used also permit interviewees to do what?, rather than having to select one from a l____ range of f____ choice answers, none of which may fully match their real opinions.

• Thus an unstructured interview is more likely to do what?

Theoretical issues → interpretivism

The interviewee's view

• The absence of a pre-set structure of fixed questions gives interviewees freedom to raise issues and discuss what is important to them.

• This may bring fresh insights that had not previously occurred to the sociologist.

• Also, the interviewer's probing and encouragement can help the interviewee to formulate their thoughts more clearly.

• The open-ended questions used also permit interviewees to express themselves as they choose, rather than having to select one from a limited range of forced choice answers, none of which may fully match their real opinions.

• Thus an unstructured interview is more likely to reveal the interviewee's true meanings.

Theoretical issues → positivism

• Positivists reject the use of unstructured interviews as u____.

• In their view, this method lacks o_____ and r_____ and fails to produce r_____ data that can be generalised to the wider population.

Theoretical issues → positivism

• Positivists reject the use of unstructured interviews as unscientific.

• In their view, this method lacks objectivity and reliability and fails to produce representative data that can be generalised to the wider population.

Theoretical issues → positivism

Reliability

• Positivists argue that the unstructured interview is not r_____, because it is not a s____ m____ i____.

• This is because each interview is u____.

• For example, interviewers are free to o____ or a____ questions, ask d____ ones or change their wording each time if they feel it is r____ to do so.

• As a result, it is virtually impossible for another researcher to do what?

• For positivists, this is a major s_____: if the original study cannot be checked by others by r_____ its methods, we cannot be c____ that its findings are in fact t___

Theoretical issues → positivism

Reliability

• Positivists argue that the unstructured interview is not reliable, because it is not a standardised measuring instrument.

• This is because each interview is unique.

• For example, interviewers are free to omit or add questions, ask different ones or change their wording each time if they feel it is relevant to do so.

• As a result, it is virtually impossible for another researcher to replicate the interviews and check the findings or compare them with their own.

• For positivists, this is a major shortcoming: if the original study cannot be checked by others by replicating its methods, we cannot be confident that its findings are in fact true

Theoretical issues → positivism

Quantification

• Why can’t answers from unstructured interviews cannot easily be categorised and quantified?

• In turn, this makes unstructured interviews less useful for what 3 things?

Theoretical issues → positivism

Quantification

• Because unstructured interviews use open-ended questions, answers cannot easily be categorised and quantified.

• In turn, this makes unstructured interviews less useful for correlating variables, testing hypotheses and establishing cause-and-effect relationships.

Theoretical issues → positivism

Representativeness

• Positivists dislike unstructured interviews because they are less likely to produce r____ d____ from which generalisations can be made and c___ laws discovered

• Because they take longer, s____ sizes are often much s____ than with s____ i____.

• This makes it less likely that the sample will be r____.

• Therefore it will be harder to make valid g____ about the wider population based on the findings of the interviews.

• However, interpretivists see this as less of a problem because they do not place as much emphasis on what?

• This is because they are not seeking to discover c____ l____ about the workings of the s___ s____, but to understand what?

Theoretical issues → positivism

Representativeness

• Positivists dislike unstructured interviews because they are less likely to produce representative data from which generalisations can be made and causal laws discovered

• Because they take longer, sample sizes are often much smaller than with structured interviews.

• This makes it less likely that the sample will be representative.

• Therefore it will be harder to make valid generalisations about the wider population based on the findings of the interviews.

• However, interpretivists see this as less of a problem because they do not place as much emphasis on representativeness and generalisation.

• This is because they are not seeking to discover causal laws about the workings of the social structure, but to understand the meanings of actors in specific contexts.

Theoretical issues

Lack of validity

• Interpretivists see unstructured interviews as producing v____ d___.

• However, positivists argue that the i____ between i__ and interviewee inevitably undermines their v___.

• Because the success of unstructured interviews often relies on what? there is a danger of this d____ the information obtained

• For example, interviewees may be more concerned to do what?

✘- However, not all unstructured interviews rely on rapport.

• For example, B____ (1971) used a____, d____ and playing d___' to get teachers to reveal how they c____ pupils in stereotypical ways.

Theoretical issues

Lack of validity

• Interpretivists see unstructured interviews as producing valid data.

• However, positivists argue that the interaction between interviewer and interviewee inevitably undermines their validity.

• Because the success of unstructured interviews often relies on establishing rapport, there is a danger of this distorting the information obtained

• For example, interviewees may be more concerned to please their 'friend' the interviewer by providing what they believe are the expected answers.

✘- However, not all unstructured interviews rely on rapport.

• For example, Becker (1971) used aggression, disbelief and playing dumb' to get teachers to reveal how they classified pupils in stereotypical ways.

Theoretical issues

Lack of validity

• Unstructured interviews yield q____ data, and positivists argue that this too can undermine v___.

• Because the answers are not pre-coded, the sociologist has to do what?

• Positivists argue that this inevitably involves what?

• Therefore, rather than giving us a v___ p____ of social life, unstructured interviews merely give us a p____ as seen through the e____ of the s____.

• Thus, positivists turn what into a criticism?

Theoretical issues

Lack of validity

• Unstructured interviews yield qualitative data, and positivists argue that this too can undermine validity.

• Because the answers are not pre-coded, the sociologist has to analyse and categorise the data as they see fit.

• Positivists argue that this inevitably involves the researcher making value judgments about the meanings of answers.

• Therefore, rather than giving us a valid picture of social life, unstructured interviews merely give us a picture as seen through the eyes of the sociologist.

• Thus, positivists turn the standard interpretivist criticism of structured interviews - that they inevitably involve imposing unstructured interviews the researcher's categories on the data - into a criticism

Theoretical issues → Feminism

As we saw above, many feminists reject the use of structured interviews, which they regard as 'm____' and p_____.

Some feminists, such as O____, argue that there is a s____ and d____ feminist approach to research.

This kind of research:

• Is v____-c____: it takes w_____ s____ and aims to give a v____ to their e____ and to free them from p____ o____

• Requires the r______ i______ with, rather than d____ from, the lives of the women she studies.

• Aims for e_____ and c____ between the researcher and researched, rather than h___ and c____ by the r___

Theoretical issues → Feminism

As we saw above, many feminists reject the use of structured interviews, which they regard as 'masculine' and positivistic.

Some feminists, such as Oakley, argue that there is a superior and distinctively feminist approach to research.

This kind of research:

• Is value-committed: it takes women's side and aims to give a voice to their experience and to free them from patriarchal oppression.

• Requires the researcher's involvement with, rather than detachment from, the lives of the women she studies.

• Aims for equality and collaboration between the researcher and researched, rather than hierarchy and control by the researcher.

Theoretical issues → Feminism

• To illustrate this approach, Oakley draws on her own experience of conducting ____ unstructured interviews with women about what

• On average, she spent over ____ hours interviewing each woman and even a____ some of the b____.

• Unlike in the 'm_____' approach, Oakley wished to involve the women as a____ c____ and friends.

• She w____ answered their questions about h____ and her r___ and met their requests for a____ about c____

• . She also helped them with housework and childcare, and many of the w__ showed an i____ in the r____ and assisted by phoning her up with more information.

Theoretical issues → Feminism

• To illustrate this approach, Oakley draws on her own experience of conducting 178 unstructured interviews with women about becoming mothers.

• On average, she spent over nine hours interviewing each woman and even attended some of the births.

• Unlike in the 'masculine' approach, Oakley wished to involve the women as active collaborators and friends.

• She willingly answered their questions about herself and her research and met their requests for advice about childbirth

• . She also helped them with housework and childcare, and many of the women showed an interest in the research and assisted by phoning her up with more information.

Theoretical issues → Feminism

• Oakley argues that developing a more e____ and i___ relationship improved the q____ of her research by allowing her to get c____ to the w_____ e_____ and point of view.

• As a feminist, it what was also important to her?

• For example, many of them found that being interviewed helped reduce their a____ about childbirth.

Theoretical issues → Feminism

• Oakley argues that developing a more equal and intimate relationship improved the quality of her research by allowing her to get closer to the women's experiences and point of view.

• As a feminist, it was also important to her that the research helped to improve the women's lives.

• For example, many of them found that being interviewed helped reduce their anxieties about childbirth.

Theoretical issues → FeminismEvaluation of Oakley

✘- However, P____ (1992) argues that there is nothing distinctively f____ or original about Oakley's approach.

• Her view of interviewing is basically the same as that of interpretivism,how?

✓- However, feminists argue that Oakley goes beyond the interpretivist approach.

• For example, she had direct i____ in the women's lives outside the interview situation, offering them help and advice.

• This reflects the v___-c____ nature of feminist research, which explicitly takes women's side and seeks to improve their lives.

Theoretical issues → FeminismEvaluation of Oakley

✘- However, Pawson (1992) argues that there is nothing distinctively feminist or original about Oakley's approach.

• Her view of interviewing is basically the same as that of interpretivism, with its 'time-honoured tradition of positivism-bashing in general, and structured-interviewing bashing in particular.

✓- However, feminists argue that Oakley goes beyond the interpretivist approach.

• For example, she had direct involvement in the women's lives outside the interview situation, offering them help and advice.

• This reflects the value-committed nature of feminist research, which explicitly takes women's side and seeks to improve their lives.