India: Religion (inc. Concepts, Events, Documents and Works, Writers, Figures, Belief Systems, etc.)

Hinduism (All Facts)

• Religion which provided some cultural unity throughout South and southern Asia, especially in a period of India that was disunified

  • Religion which allowed many people to combine their own local faith tradition with adherence to the same scriptures and core beliefs respected throughout the region

• Religion which

  • Was polytheistic

  • Featured temples and artwork with pictures of deities

  • Was associated with a hierarchical caste system

  • Recognized several sacred texts

Rig-Veda (All Facts)

• Earliest account that summarized Indo-Aryan religious beliefs around 1500 BCE

• Was unwritten, but was the most sacred text of the Indo-Aryans and other peoples of northern India around 800 BCE

• Gave rise to a great deal of religious discussion since its hymns were first collected

• Work which references the fourfold division of Indo-Aryan society into castes and the caste system

Upanishads (All Facts)

• Collection of 250 devotional hymns, saying, and reflections; which was the work of holy men and philosopher-kings contemporary of the Indo-Aryan peoples around 800 BCE

  • Are composed as dialogues, with questions and answers as if the reader was in a class

  • They are essentially aimed at finding deeper religious truth in the traditional framework of belief centered on the concept of life and existence known as “brahma”

• This word meant “a session in which religious teachers pass on their wisdom to their pupils,” which was also what the work was clearly purported to do

• Were more spiritual in nature compared to earlier texts

• It posed questions such as “what is the origin of the universe?” and “what is the nature of the soul?”

Sacrificial Offering (All Facts)

• Duty in Ancient Indian society that was carried out by the Brahmans or priests

• Consisted of food given to gods who could not sustain themselves in any other way

• Practice that was considered essential to the smooth running of the cosmos

563 BCE - 478 BCE - Siddhartha Gautama Buddha (All Facts)

• Founder of Buddhism, the beliefs he learned and preached became its basis (described below)

  • Was one of the great spiritual masters of all of Asia

  • He spent over 40 years reaching and gained many disciples

• Was born in Kapilavastu (at the foot of the mountains of Nepal)

• His father was wise and illustrious ruler

  • However, he feared his son would renounce the throne for a contemplative life and thus tried to isolate him from all human suffering but failed to do so

• His mother, Maya Devi, died a week after his birth

  • According to legend, she died in order that she might not have her heart broken by seeing her son leave home and take to the life of a beggar

• He grew up as a prince

  • He was quiet and reflective

  • While a prince, In 3 separate instances, while he was driving his chariot through the eastern, southern, and western gates of Kapilavastu, respectively; he was confronted by the sufferings of an old man, a diseased man, and a dead man

  • In a 4th instance in which he drove his chariot through the northern gate, he passed a monk with a begging bowl

  • As a result of having concentrated his mind on these four instances, he renounced his princely inheritance and became a mendicant monk

    • He abandoned all earthly ambitions by the age of 30, for the life of an ascetic instead

• As a monk,

  • He rejected the teachings of the Brahman caste at the time, who taught that birth and rebirth were eternal cycles from which there was no escape

  • He withdrew to the village of Urevela, on the banks of the Nairanjana, where he stayed for 6 years

    • There, under a fig tree, he achieved enlightenment, becoming “the” namesake figure meaning the “Enlightened One”

    • From there, he entered the state of “Nirvana” or “Nothingness”

  • He then travelled the roads of India preaching a new path to enlightenment

  • He preached that enlightenment and salvation are not exclusive to the Brahmans but open to all

• He argued that there were four essential holy truths:

  • everything is suffering

  • the cause of suffering is desire

  • the suppression of desire brings about the suppression of suffering

  • to suppress desire, and thus suppress suffering; one needs to follow the noble “Eightfold Path”

• He articulated the “Eightfold Path” one needed to follow to suppress desire and suffering which was of right

  • Opinion

  • Intention

  • Speech

  • Action

  • Livelihood

  • Mindfulness

  • Effort

  • Concentration

• Died in Oudh

• By 25 CE, he was represented in human form for the first time, in Gandhara

Buddhism (All Facts)

• Religion founded by the Buddha

599 BCE - 527 BCE - Mahavira / Vardhamana (All Facts)

• Founder of Jainism

  • His followers were called Jainas

• His life parallels that of the Buddha

  • He was born at Bihar into the warrior caste

  • At the age of 30, he abandoned his life of ease and as a warrior and retired for a year of meditation

  • Then, he devoted himself to asceticism and experiencing enlightenment

• He taught that

  • the sacred Rig-Veda texts could not have been divine revelation

  • the Brahmans (the priests in India at the time) be the only mediators between gods and men

  • the ways to enlightenment are

    • right faith

    • right knowledge

    • right conduct

    • Ahimsa - doctrine of non-injury to all living creatures

Jainism (All Facts)

• Religion founded by Vardhamana or Mahavira

• One of its key tenets is the “theory of approach”

• Religion that initially attracted the wealthy merchants of the growing towns of India at the time of its emergence due to it freeing them from their crushing obligations of supporting the Brahman priests and their costly services

Theory of Approach (All Facts)

• Jain doctrine which states that the appearance of a thing depends not on its essence but on the individual’s approach to it

  • It follows thus that what the individual perceives is not necessarily reality

Ahimsa (All Facts)

• Jain doctrine which requires non-injury to all living creatures

Shrine of Sanchi (All Facts)

• Founded by Ashoka of the Mauryan Dynasty

• Located in the state of Madhya Pradesh

• Became one of the great religious centers of Indian Buddhism

• Buried within it were the relics of the Buddha, kept in a casket

• Was admired without reservation by the thousands of pilgrims who flocked to it from all over India

• Its original monument or stupa still dominated over the lesser shrines built surrounding it

• It was first built of brick and topped by a stone umbrella-canopy, but was extended and embellished over time

  • It became a solid construction of bricks and rubble, faced in concrete, 54 feet high, shaped like a dome and still shaded by a stone umbrella

  • A stone railing ten feet high encircled the shrine

  • It was broken by four exquisite gateways of stone; their pillars and crossbars carved with lions, elephants, demi-gods, caryatids, and various forms of erotica

110 - Fourth Buddhist Council (All Facts) 

• Held in Kashmir

• Proceeded under the direction of Asvaghosha

• Divided Buddhism into two branches of belief: Mahayana Buddhism and Hinayana Buddhism

Asvaghosa (All Facts)

• Buddhist Theologian, poet, dramatist, and musician

• Friend of King Kanishka the Great

• Presided over the Fourth Buddhist Council

Mahayana Buddhism (All Facts) 

• The “Greater Vehicle” 

Hinayana Buddhism (All Facts)

• The “Lesser Vehicle”

150s - 250s - Nagarjuna (All Facts)

• Indian Buddhist Philosopher and Monk

• Founder of Madhyamaka Buddhism or “Middle Way” 

  • Proclaimed a new way towards enlightenment

  • Led to the development of Mahayana Buddhism

• He was originally a Brahman but converted to Buddhism during the great renewal of the religion in India by Kanishka the Great of the Kushan Empire

  • He was taught by some of Buddhism’s most knowledgeable teachers at the time

• He was a spiritual advisor to Gautamiputra Satakarni, the King of the Satavahana Empire

  • His ideas became the official doctrine of the Satavahana Empire

• Some of his ideas were natural developments from early Buddhism whereas others were radical, rapidly changing the whole concept of Buddhism

  • Some of the radical ideas included the

    • Belief that the Buddha is himself the incarnation of a greater Buddha 

    • Theory of emptiness or void 

Prajnaparamita Sutra / Perfection of Wisdom (All Facts) 

• Book which contains many ideas including 

  • Having active compassion for all of earth’s creatures

  • The conviction that laymen as well as monks can attain enlightenment

Cosmic Dance of Shiva (All Facts) 

• Term used to refer to the Hindu idea of sex and that sexuality is a central part of human life, as fundamental as breathing and it is a basic part of nature 

• Term used to refer to the Hindu idea that sex is as much a religious experience as it is a physical and sensual one 

Nalanda University (All Facts)

• Great Center of Buddhist studies founded on the namesake plain of the Ganges in 440

• It consisted of ten monasteries and a group of shrines, all enclosed within a surrounding wall

• Located in modern-day Bihar

700s - 750s - Adi Shankara (All Facts)

• Indian Hindu Philosopher born in Cochin

• He was known for his Theory of Vedanta and becoming the first most important member of the Vedanta School of Philosophy, which revolutionized Hindu thought

  • It affirmed the one true reality (Brahma) as the source of all things

  • Synthesizing Hinduism and Buddhism, he identified two levels of truth

    • At the lower level, the world was created by Brahma

    • At the higher level, all, including the gods themselves was an illusion (“maya”) and the only reality was Brahman, the impersonal world soul

• His commentaries on the Upanishads gave Hinduism a new coherence

  • He also wrote commentaries on the “Brahma Sutra”

• He founded the four cardinal Hindu monasteries at

  • Sringeri

  • Puri

  • Dwaraka

  • Badrinath

• He travelled India preaching his message

• He never achieved the higher level of his Vedanta Theory himself, and regretted going on pilgrimages and forgetting that God was everywhere upon his death

Islam / Islamic India (All Facts)

• Religion which was introduced to India by the Delhi Sultanate, at first forcefully, but eventually having taken on a more peaceful approach

• Religion which sharply contrasted with traditional Hinduism in that

  • It was monotheistic, whereas Hinduism was polytheistic

  • It was iconoclastic, whereas Hindu temples and artwork were replete with pictures of deities

  • it centered on the teachings and spiritual guidance of the Quran, whereas Hindus recognized several texts

  • it called for the equality of all believers, whereas Hinduism had a hereditary and hierarchical caste system

    • This attracted low-caste Hindus who hoped that conversion to the namesake religion would improve their own social status

      • However, the low-caste Hindus who converted to the namesake to improve their social status usually did not achieve that goal

• Religion that eventually made Buddhism a minority religion in India, the very place of its birth

• Religion which worked like Christianity in the Roman Empire, appealing to the people who suffered the most under the existing social structures

  • However, its arrival to India did little to alter the basic structure of society in India and South Asia, with its caste system continuing strong during the period

• Religion whose converts were mainly Buddhist, due to corruption amongst Buddhist monks and raids on monasteries by early conquerors of the namesake leaving the Buddhist religion disorganized

• Religion whose merchants, especially those from the namesake lands and those involved in the Indian Ocean trade, moved to Indian port cities and married, with their wives often ending up being converted to their husband’s religion

• Religion whose missionaries had found out fairly early on in their reign over India that evangelism, especially proselytization of its Hindu and Buddhist subjects turned out to be quite unsuccessful, so most of its converts in India came voluntarily

• Religion which applied its core teachings differently depending on the culture of Indians upon which they were converting

  • Religion which did not greatly alter gender relations in South Asia

1100s - 1600s - Bhakti Movement (All Facts)

• Movement within Hinduism which

  • started in southern India

  • did not discriminate against women or people of low social status

  • drew upon traditional teachings about the importance of emotion in spiritual life

  • focused on developing a strong attachment to a particular deity

  • Helped spread Hinduism to other regions

• Though Hindus, they shared similarities with Sufi Muslims in that both groups

  • Developed as mystical movements

  • Emphasized inner reflection in order to achieve a direct personal relationship with a deity

  • Placed less emphasis on strict adherence to traditional beliefs and rituals, thus appealing to people outside their traditions and helping spread their respective religions

1199 - 1278 - Madhvacharya (All Facts)

• Indian Philosopher

• His life was remarkably similar to that of Jesus Christ

• He denied the Sankara doctrine of the illusory nature of the world

1398 - 1400s - Kabir (All Facts)

• Indian Mystic

  • He was originally a weaver from Benares

• He attempted to merge aspects / ideas of Hinduism and Sufi Islam

  • He rejected Hindu beliefs in idols and castes but accepted the institutions of reincarnation and eventual release

  • His followers known as Kabirpanthies, a movement which laid the foundations for Sikhism