Adaptation

3 strategies used to manage climate risks

• Protect = building defences to keep risks away e.g. hard engineering such as sea walls, dykes, storm surge barriers

• Accommodate = adjusting lifestyles and infrastructure to live with risks e.g. new crop strains, greater efficiency in irrigation

• Retreat = moving away from high-risk areas to prevent loss and damage e.g. relocation from flood plains or low-land coastal zones

Choice of adaptation strategy depends on 4 key factors

• economic development, risk levels, political will, and technological capacity

• not all adaptation strategies are appropriate in all locations, each risk is weighed up and 4 key factors are considered before a single strategy is selected

• in some locations, bottom-up action is required at a local scale, where vulnerable communities have a knowledge of their local area

• some locations rely on top-down action from gov., more widely in ACs e.g. desalination in Israel, Sand Engine in Netherlands

Protect - defensive measures to prevent climate impacts

• using physical infrastructure or ecosystem based solutions to shield areas from climate risks

• best for - wealthier nations, strong governance, advanced technology yet ecosystem based protection is more applicable across the development spectrum

  • Engineering and infrastructure - 1. flood defences (sea walls, levees, storm surge barriers) e.g. Water Plaza in the Netherlands, 2. water management smart drainage systems and desalination plans e.g. Israel

  • Ecosystem-based protection - 1. afforestation + reforestation, stabilises soils and prevents flooding e.g. Africa’s Great Green Wall, reforestation in Amazon, 2. Wetland restoration, natural flood buffers e.g. Cambridgeshire restoration in UK, 3. beach nourishment on a vast scale e.g. Sand Engine in Netherlands

• Influencing factors - high econ. resources, ecosystem based protection needs sustained political will, strong governance, advanced tech. and engineering

Accommodate - adjusting to climate risks without preventing them

• modifying human activites, infrastructure, and policies to cope with CC

• best for - moderate risk areas, middle-income countries, where relocation is not an option

  • Agriculture and water management - 1. drought resistant crops suited for dry conditions e.g. Bangladesh’s salt resistant crops, 2. improved irrigation like drip irrigation and rainwater harvest e.g. Sub-Saharan Africa, Israel)

  • Urban and social adaptation - 1. green infrastructure like green roofs, permeable pavements to reduce heat island effect e.g. Freiburg Germany, 2. Disaster preparedness e.g. cyclone warnings in Bangladesh, 3. Climate risk insurance for farmers and coastal communities, 4. community training, education on climate adaptation strategies

• influencing factors - weak government or political barriers to large scale protection, cultural attachment to land

Retreat - relocating away from high-risk areas

• moving communities and infrastructure away from climate threats

• best for = high risk areas, LIC unable to afford protection, regions where long term habitation is unsustainable

  • planned relocation and land use change - 1. managed retreat from coastlines e.g. Fairbourne in Wales, Maldives buying land in Australia, 2. zoning laws and relocation incentives - gov. restricting development in flood prone areas, 3. floating cities and houses e.g. Netherlands' and Bangladesh’s floating homes

• Influencing factors - weak governance and lack of infrastructure investment, willingness or necessity to relocate

Successes of the Sand Engine in the Netherlands (protection)

• effective coastal protection:

  • since its creating in 2011, the Sand engine has sig. reduced coastal erosion along the South Holland coast

  • instead of annual sand replenishment, which was costly and disruptive, the sand engine provides a long term, self-sustaining solution

• expansion of beaches and dunes:

  • the project expanded the beach and dunes, increasing protection against storm surges and SLR

  • studies show that the coastline has remained stable and the deposited sand has spread as predicted

• environmental and ecological benefits

  • the sand engine has created new natural habitats for wildlife, including birds and marine species

  • unlike traditional sea walls or hard defences, this method works with nature rather than against it

Overall - highly successful, cost-effective, sustainable, with minimal environmental impact and sig. long term benefits

Challenges and limitations of sand engine (protection)

What is it? - coastal protection project in the Netherlands involving depositing 21.5 mill m3 of sand on a single location along the Dutch coastline and allowing natural forces to gradually distribute the sand

• Long-term monitoring required

  • while the project has been successful so far, continuous monitoring is needed to ensure the sand spreads effectively

• only suitable for certain coastlines

  • the sand engine relies on specific coastal conditions (e.g. strong currents, sufficient sand supply), making it less viable in some regions

  • costs $80 million therefore not applicable in all locations

Successes of the Great Green Wall in Africa (protection)

• Land restoration and reforestation

  • over 20 million hectares of land restored as of 2021

  • senegal has planted 12 million drought-resistant trees, improving soil fertility and water retention

• Improved agriculture and food security

  • in areas where GGW is successful, farmers can grow crops again in previously infertile land

  • agroforestry techniques have helped farmers increase their yields

• economic benefits and job creation

  • the project has created over 350,000 jobs in the Sahel region, providing work in tree planting, sustainable farming, and conservation efforts

  • women are benefiting from new income sources e.g. sustainable agriculture and eco-tourism

Overall - partially successful, but requires more work e.g. management, community involvement, and climate-resilient agriculture

Challenges and limitations of the GGW in Africa (protection)

What is it? - project launched in 2007 by African Union to restore 100 mill. hectares of degraded land by 2030 by planting trees and promoting sustainable land management across 11 countries

• uneven progress across countries

  • while some countries e.g. Senegal, Ethiopia have made sig. progress, others like Chad and Sudan have faced delays due to conflict, political instability, and funding issues

  • only 18% of the original goal (100 mill. hectares) has been achieved so far

• high costs and funding groups

  • the project requires $33 billion to complete, but only about $19 billion has been raised

• CC and drought challenges

  • extreme heat and droughts in Sahel make tree survival difficult

  • up to 80% of trees planted in some areas have died due to lack of water and maintanence

Successes of the ‘salt solution’ in Bangladesh (accommodate)

• increased food security and crop yields

  • by 2021, over 1 mill. farmers adopted a salt-tolerant rice, increasing yields in coastal regions

• improved livelihoods through aquaculture

  • brackish water shrimp farming has provided alternative livelihoods for farmers in saline-affected areas. shrimp exports contribute to $500 mill+ annually to Bangladesh’s economy

• floating agriculture resilience

  • farmers use floating beds made of water hyacinths, allowing crop cultivation during floods

Overall - partially successful but needs long term solutions, more investment and sustainable land management needed

Challenges and limitations of the ‘salt solutions’

What is it - adaptation strategy to combat saltwater intrusion by growing salt-tolerant crops, floating agriculture, brackish water aquaculture

• high initial costs for farmers

  • transitioning to salt-tolerant crops and shrimp farming requires investment in seeds, irrigation, and training. many small farmers lack financial resources to switch to new methods

• environmental risks of shrimp farming

  • excessive shrimp farming leads to further soil salinization, making future agriculture more difficult

• climate change impact

  • extreme weather events e.g. Cyclone Amphan in 2020 destroyed salt-tolerant crops and shrimp farm

Retreat - Small boat mitigation to Europe as a Retreat Adaptation Strategy

Successes

• people fleeing environmental and economic crises in Africa, Middle East and Asia - overcrowded boast to cross Med/Eng. channel to Italy or UK

1. provides an escape as might be the only available means of reaching safety/economic opportunity

2. economic opportunities for some migrants - e.g. agriculture, construction and service industries in EU helping with remittances

3. raise awareness about climate migration - EU gov and international org. acknowledge climate migration as an issue

Overall - risky and unsuccessful, should be last resort, not sustainable adaptation strategy

Failures of Small boat migration

1. Extremely dangerous journeys + high death rates - Med sea is one of deadliest routes, 2023 - 2,500 migrants died due to overloaded + unseaworthy boats

2. strict border controls + deportation - EU tightened immigration policies, many intercepted at sea + sent back to Libya, Tunisia, or Turkey

3. poor living conditions + exploitation - many end up in overcrowded camps, lim. access to food, water, healthcare, some face exploitation in low-wage jobs/illegal labour

4. social + political backlash - fuelled anti-immigration sentiment across EU

Risks that cities face from CC

• increasing disease risk - esp. vector-borne diseases e.g. malaria

• climactic events e.g. heatwaves, flooding, wildfires, storm and coastal inundation - disruption to businesses, transport, food, health, education

• interact and compound risks from other urban challenges

Adaptation strategies for cities

• Smart cities - AI-driven analytics optimise energy use, traffic flow, and emergency responses

• green urban planning - increased green spaces, urban forests + pedestrian friendly infrastructure

• Circular economy integration - waste management - recycling, composting, and repurposing materials

• climate resilience - infrastructure designed to withstand CC (sea levels + extreme weather

• Community Centric designs - mixed-use developments integrate residential, commercial + leisure spaces (promote walkability)

Adapting to heat waves - cities

• increasing green infrastructure, replacing concrete and tarmac with trees, shrubs and grass

• greening cities increases ET an cooling and provide shade, rooftop garden reduce albedo, light-coloured roofs, walls and walkways increase reflection

• future policies protect existing green space and enhance it wherever possible

• Freiburg - urban green spaces e.g. parks, tree-lined streets, community gardens contribute to C sequestration, cooling effects, and improved air quality

Adapting to flooding - cities

• trees, parks, green roofs, evaporation can be increased and run-off reduced + slowed

• green cover = greater interception + more ET, greater soil moisture storage

• replacing impermeable roads with permeable paving run off will be reduced = infiltration greater

• Rotterdam Water Plaza, Freiburg implemented sustainable drainage systems, green roofs and water retention areas to mitigate flood risks

Land and crop management - agriculture

• zero tillage - growing crops without ploughing the soil, conserves soils organic content, reduces oxidation and risk of erosion by wind and water

• polyculture - growing annual crops interspersed with trees

• crop residues - leaving crop residues on fields after harvest, provide ground cover, and protection against soil erosion + drying out

• avoiding use of heavy farm machinery on wet soils, leads to compaction and surface run off

• e.g. Israel using drip irrigation, water re-use 86%, desalination,