Psychology - Memory

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Short-term memory (STM)

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69 Terms

1

Short-term memory (STM)

The limited capacity memory store. In STM, coding is mainly acoustic, capacity is 7 +/- 2 and duration is 18 seconds

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2

Long-term memory (LTM)

The permanent memory store. In LTM, coding is mainly semantic, it has unlimited capacity and can store up to a lifetime

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3

Coding

The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores

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4

Capacity

The amount of information that can be held in the memory store

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5

Duration

The length of time information can be held in memory

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6

Acoustic

The perception and retainment of of sound

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7

Semantic

General facts

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8

Digit span

A measure of verbal short term and working memory

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9

Chunking

Grouping sets of digits and letters into units

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10

Multi-store model (MSM)

A representation of how memory works in terms of three stores called the sensory register, STM and LTM. It also describes how information is transferred from one store to another

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11

Sensory Register

The memory store for each of our five senses. The capacity involves millions of receptors and has a duration of 0.5 seconds

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12

Maintenance rehearsal

The process of repetition to retain memories in the STM

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13

Episodic memory

A LTM memory store for personal events, memories of events, people, objects, places and behaviours. These memories of recalled consciously

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14

Semantic memory

A LTM memory store for our general knowledge. These memories are called consciously

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15

Procedural memory

A LTM memory store for our knowledge of actions including learnt skills. These memories are usually recalled unconsciously

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16

Working memory model (WMM)

A representation of STM. It suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub units coordinated by a central decision-making system

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17

Central executive (CE)

The component of the WMM that coordinates the activities of the three sub systems in memory. It allocates processing resources to those activities

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18

Phonological loop (PL)

The component of the WMM that processes information in terms of sound. This includes both written and spoken material. Itā€™s divided into the phonological store and the articulatory process

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19

Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS)

The component of the WMM that processes visual and spatial information in a mental space

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20

Episodic buffer (EB)

The component of the WMM that brings together material from the other subsystems unto a single memory rather than seperate strands. It also provides a bridge between working memory and LTM

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21

Phonological store

Stores words you hear

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22

Articulatory process

Allows maintenance rehearsal to keep the sounds in working memory

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23

Visual cache

Stores visual data

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24

Inner scribe

Records the arrangement of objects in the visual field

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25

Interference

Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one of both memories to be distorted or forgotten

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26

proactive interference (PI)

Forgetting occurs when older memories, already stored, disrupt the recall of newer memories. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar

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27

Retroactive interference (RI)

Forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories already stored. The degree of forgetting is similar when memories are similar

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28

Retrieval failure

A form of forgetting. It occurs when we donā€™t have the necessary cues to access memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided

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29

Cue

A trigger of information that allows us access to a memory

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30

Encoding specificity principle (ESP)

For a cue to be helpful it has to be present at time of learning and time of retrieval

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31

Context-dependent forgetting

Recall depends on external cues

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32

State-dependent forgetting

Recall depends on internal cues

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33

Eyewitness testimony (EWT)

The ability of people to remember the details of events which they have observed. Accuracy can be affected by factors such as misleading information and anxiety

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34

Misleading information

Incorrect information given to an eyewitness usually after the event. It can take many forms such as leading questions and post-event discussion

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35

Leading questions

A question which suggests a certain answer due to phrasing

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36

Post-event discussion (PED)

Occurs when there is more than one witness to an event. Witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co-witnesses or with other people which may influence others recall of the event

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37

Anxiety

A state of emotional and physical arousal. Although a normal reaction to stress, it can effect accuracy of detail in EWT

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38

Tunnel theory

Peopleā€™s memory is enhanced on central events

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39

Yerkes-Dodson law

The relationship between task accuracy and stress

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40

Cognitive interview (CI)

A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories. It uses four main techniques: report everything, reinstate context, reverse the order and change perspective

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41

Enhanced cognitive interview (ECI)

Additional elements to the CI based around social dynamics: minimising distractions, eye contact and open-ended questions

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42

Baddeley - Coding Study

  • 4 groups (acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar and semantically dissimilar)

  • Lists were handed out for each group and results showed STM is worse acoustically similar and LTM is worse with semantically similar words

  • Suggests coding is done acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM

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43

Jacobs - Capacity (Digit Span)

  • Researcher reads out 4 digits at a time and the participant then recalls these (little issue)

  • Digit span increases until participant struggles

  • Digit mean is is 9 and letter span 7

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44

Miller - Capacity (Chunking)

  • Theorised capacity is 7 +/- 2 in STM

  • people could recall 5 words as easily as 5 letters through chunking

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45

Peterson and Peterson - Duration of STM

  • 24 students with 8 trials each

  • given an consonant syllable (YCG) and a 3-digit number to count backwards from (stopping rehearsal)

  • Time increments for countdown in each trial (3, 6, 9, 12 seconds)

  • 3 seconds = 80% accuracy

  • 18 seconds = 3% accuracy

  • Suggests that STM is approx. 18 seconds unless rehearsed

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46

Bahrick - Duration of LTM

  • 392 American participants

  • High school yearbooks used for photo-recognition, name recall and free recall

  • Within 15 years of graduation photo recognition was 90%, 48 years 70%

  • Within 15 years free recall was 60% and 30% after 48 years

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47

Atkinson and Shiffrin

Developed the multi-store-model (MSM)

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48

Case study - HM

  • Epileptic and underwent removal surgery on the hippocampus

  • Damaged STM and destroyed LTM

  • Procedural memory was able to improve (part of hippocampus was left)

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49

Tulving - LTM Stores

  • found the MSM to simplistic for LTM

  • Created three memory store types episodic, semantic and procedural

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50

Case Study - Clive Wearing

  • Viral infection resulted in retrograde amnesia

  • Permanent damage to LTM and STM of a few seconds

  • Procedural and semantic memory remained intact and episodic was destroyed

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51

Buckner and Peterson - Memory Store Placements

  • Semantic memory was on the left side of the prefrontal cortex

  • Episodic memory was on the right side of the prefrontal cortex

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52

Baddeley and Hitch - The Working Memory Model

  • Created the Working Memory Model

  • An explanation of how one aspect of memory is organised and its function

  • Consists of four main components - all qualitatively different in terms of coding and capacity

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53

Baddeley - Episodic Buffer

  • Added the episodic buffer to the WMM in 2000

  • A temporary store for information which maintains time sequencing

  • Can be viewed as the storage component of the CE but has a limited capacity of about four chunks

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54

Case Study - KF

  • After a brain injury KF had poor STM ability for auditory information but could process visual normally

  • KFā€™s phonological loop were damaged but his visuo-spatial sketchpad was intact

  • Supporting evidence of seperate visual and acoustic stores

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55

Baddeley et al - Dual Performance Task

  • Participants carried out visual and verbal tasks at the same time, performance was similar on each when done separately

  • Performance declined when tasks were of the same category as a result of competition between the same sub-system

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56

McGeoch and McDonald - retroactive interference

  • Tested by changing the amount of similarity between two sets of material

  • Participants had to learn a list of 10 words with 100% accuracy and then groups (6) had to learn another list

  • Synonyms, antonyms, unrelated words, consonant syllables, 3-digits and no list

  • The most similar material was worst recall showing that interference is strongest with similar information

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57

Baddeley and Hitch - RW Interference

  • Asked rugby players to recall the names of the teams they had played against during the season

  • Players played for the same time interval but the number of games varied due to injury

  • People who played the most had the poorest recall - provides validity to the theory of interference

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58

Tulving and Psokta - Cues in Interference

  • Gave participants a list of words organised into categories - recall average was 70% for first list but progressively got worse (proactive interference)

  • At the end, the participants were given a cued recall test and recall rose again to be about 70%

  • This shows interference causes a temporary loss of accessibility to materials

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59

Coenen and Luijtelaar - Retrograde Facilitation

  • Gave participants a list of words and later asked them to recall the list, assuming the intervening experiences would act as interference

  • Found that a list of words learnt when on diazepam, recall was poor but if learnt before recall was better

  • Meaning the drug improved )facilitated) recall of material learned before

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60

Godden and Baddeley - Context-Dependent Forgetting

  • Studies deep-sea divers who work underwater to see if training on land helped or hindered

  • Divers learnt a list of words either underwater or on land and asked to recall in either one of the conditions creating four groups

  • Accurate recall was 40% lower in non-matching conditions concluding that the external cues available at learning were different from ones available at recall leading to retrieval failure

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61

Canter and Cassaday - State-Dependent Forgetting

  • Gave antihistamines to participants making them drowsy

  • Participants had to learn a lost of words and passages of prose and recall the information creating four conditions

  • When mismatched between internal state at learning and recall memory was significantly worse

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62

Loftus and Palmer - Leading Questions

  • Arranged 45 participants to watch film then clips of car accidents and then asked about the accident

  • In the critical question participants were asked to describe how fast the cars were travelling - verb differed

  • Hit, bumped, contacted, collided and smashed

  • Contacted mean was 31 mph whilst smashed was 41 mph

  • This creates bias within EWT

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63

Loftus and Palmer - Response bias Explanation

  • Leading questions can then alter a personā€™s memory of the clip

  • Shown because participants who originally heard smash were later more likely to report broken glass (there was none)

  • The critical verb then altered the incident to the participant

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64

Gabbert - Post Event Discussion

  • Studied participants in pairs, each participant watched a video of a crime from different POVs

  • Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually being tested on recall

  • 71% repeated aspects as a result of discussion - evidence of memory conformity

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65

Johnson and Scott - Weapon Focus and Anxiety

  • Participants believed to be part of a lab study while in the low anxiety group participants heard a casual conversation and saw a man walk past with a pen and grease on him

  • High anxiety condition heard an argument accompanied by breaking glass and a man walked out carrying a knife covered in blood

  • Participants later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos, 49% recognised the man carrying a pen and 33% recognised the knife

  • As a result weapon focus could alter memories of the central event

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66

Yuille and Cutshall - positives of Anxiety

  • A study of an actual gun shooting when a shop owner shot a thief dead

  • There were 21 witnesses - 13 took part they were interviewed 4-5 months after the incident and these interviews were compared with the original police interviews

  • Witnesses were asked to rate their stress levels at the time of the shooting and if they had any emotional distress since

  • Witnesses experienced little change in interviews over 5 months even if accuracy of details slightly declined

  • Those who reported higher stress are usually more accurate

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67

Fisher and Geiselman - The Cognitive Interview

  • Created an improved police EWT method

  • The four main techniques report everything, reinstate the context, reverse the order and change perspective

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68

Fisher - The Advanced Cognitive Interview

  • Developed additional elements to the cognitive interview focuses on the social dynamics of interaction

  • Includes ideas on reducing anxiety and distractions using open-ended questions

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69

Kohnken - CI Effectiveness Meta-Analysis

  • Studied 55 studies comparing the CI to standard police interview

  • The CI gave a 41% accuracy increase as opposed to the police interview

  • Only 4 studies showed no difference

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