Chapter 14 - Moral Development

How Children Develop Textbook

2 stages of development in children’s moral reasoning (with a transition period between them)

1. the outcome is more important than the intention
2. the intention is seen as a paramount

heternomous morality

* the first stage
* characteristics of children younger than 7 yeras old
* in this stage, children regard rules and duties as law, and authorities’ punishments for noncompliance are always justified

Piaget suggests young children’s belief that rules are __________ are due to social and cognitive factors

unchangeable

Transition period

* intearctions with peers lead them to take one another’s perspective and develop beliefs about fairness

autonomous morality

* second stage
* children are around 11-12 years
* they no long accept blind obedience to authority as the basis of moral decisions
* consider fairness and equality as the most important factors to consider when making rules
* believe punishemnts should fit the crime, and adults are not always fair in delivering punishment

children typically progress from heteronomous morality to autonomous moral reasoning, and difference in the rates are due to numerous factors including:

cognitive maturity, opportunities for interactions with peers, and how authoritarian and punitive their parents are

Critique of Piaget’s theory

* Piaget underestimated young children’s ability to appreciate the role of intentionality in morality

Kohlberg proposed that the development of moral reasoning proceeds through a specific series of stages that are _________ and each stage reflects a more advanced way of thinking than the one before it

discontinuous and hierarchal

3 levels of moral reasoning

* preconventional, conventional, and postconventional

preconventional level

* self-centered

stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation

stage 2: instrumental and exchange orientation

Stage 1 (preconventional level)

* a child’s moral actions are motivated by avoiding punishment
* the child does not consider interests of others at all

stage 2 (preconventional level)

* what is right is what is in the best interest of the child or invovles equal exchange (ex. you hurt me, so I hurt you)

conventional level

* centered on social relationships
* child is focused on compliance with social duties and laws

stage 3: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity orientation

stage 4: social system and conscience orientation

stage 3 (conventional level)

* good behaviour is what is expected by those close to the person
* being good is important and entails having good motives, showing concern, and maintaining good relationships with others

stage 4 (conventional level)

* moral behaviour involves fulfilling one’s duties, upholding laws, and contributing to society or one’s group
* the individual is motivated to keep the social system going and to avoid a breakdown in its functioning

postconventional/principled level

* centered on ideals and a child at this level focuses on moral principles

stage 5: social contract or individual rights orientation

stage 6: universal ethical principles

stage 5 (preconventional level)

* moral behaviour invovles upholding rules that are the best for the group, are impartial, or were mutually agrreed upon by the group
* at this stage, one might reason that if society agrees the law is not benefiting everyone, it should be changed

stage 6 (preconventional level)

* moral reasoning at this stage asserts that principles must be upheld in any society regardless of majority opinion, and hwen laws violate them, the individual should act in accordance with these universal principles rather than the law
* moral behaviour here is commitment to self-chosen ethical prinicples that reflect universal prinicples like basic human rights and liberty

Critique of Kohlberg’s Theory

1. did not sufficiently differentiate between moral issues and issues of social convention
2. cultural differences in values were not taken into account
3. argues that once an individual has attained a new stage, they rarely reason at a lower one, but research has shown that children and adults reason at different levels on different occasions
4. fails to recognize the differences in which males and females reason morally based on how they are socialized

Social domain theory of moral development

* growth in moral reasoning occurs through gradual change based on social interactions (implicit and explicit) with peers, adults, and parents
* emphasizes the role of peers as a strong influence on children’s moral development
* rgues that children need to understand the principles in three different domains of social knowledge - the moral domain, societal domain, and the personal domain - for children to successfuly negotiate their social worlds

moral domain

* based on concepts of right & wrong, fairness, justice and individual rights. These concepts apply across concepts and surpass rules or authority.

societal domain

* consists of the rules and conventions societies maintain order through

personal domain

* pertains to actions where individual preferences are the main consideration with no right or wrongs
* centered around development of autonomy and identity
* even preschoolers want autonomy and older children strongly believe they should have autonomy regarding themselves at home and at school
* parents usually feel they should have some authority over children’s personal choices, which is why parents and teenagers often battle in this domain, and parents often lose these battles

Cultural and socioeconomic similiaries and differences

* what issues fall within the societal domain or personal domain differ across cultures
* religious beliefs may affect what is considered a moral judgment or societal judgement
* socioeconomic class can also influence the way children make such designations

conscience

1. internal regulatory mechanism that increases the individual’s abilty to conform to standards of conduct accepted in their culture
* restrains antisocial behaviour and destructive impulses & promotes compliance with rules and standards
* can also promote prosocial behaviour by utilizing guilt when acting in less than acceptable ways

early development of conscience contributes to whether children come to accept the ____ of their parents and society

moral values

the nature of early parent-child disciplinary interactions sets the stage for children’s ___________

subsequent moral development

gentle discipline seems to be _______ to the development of conscience in fearless young children because it does not arouse attention

unrelated

children are more likely to take on parents’ moral values if their parents use disciplinary practices ______________

low in power and high in reasoning

it is suggested that humans may have an innate drive to prefer ______ than hindering ones

helping actions

the effects of parenting on children’s conscience can vary with the child’s _______ because genes affect children’s temperaments

genes

the origins of prosocial behaviour are rooted in the capacity to feel _____________

empathy and sympathy

in order for children to express empathy or sympathy, they must be able to _________ and they can begin to do this as early as 14 months

take the perspective of others

__________ is another form of prosocial behaviour that may be driven by sympathy and a child’s sense of fairness

cooperation

many have proposed that humans are __________ to be prosocial as collaboration in foraging for food and repelling enemies ensured survival

biologically predisposed

genetics also affect empathy, sympathy and prosocial behaviour through ________

temperament

_________ contribute to individual differences in empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behaviour

genetic factors

The primary environmental influence on children’s development of prosocial behaviour is socialization in the _______

family

How do parents socialize prosocial behaviour in children?

1. modeling and teaching prosocial behaviour
2. arranging opportunities for children to engage in prosocial behaviour
3. disciplining their children and eliciting prosocial behaviour from them
4. communicating and reinforcing cultural beliefs about the value of prosocial behaviour

children are especially likely to imitate the prosocial behaviour of adults they have a ______ relationship with

positive

Providing children with opportunities to engage in helpful activities can ______ their willingness to take on prosocial tasks at a later time

increase

______ older adolescents into service activities can sometimes backfire and undermine their motivation to help

Forcing

High levels of prosocial behaviour and sympathy in children tend to be associated with ___________________

constructive and supportive parenting, including authoritative parenting

A parenting style that involves physical punishment, threats, and an authoritarian approach tends to be associated with ___________

a lack of sympathy and prosocial behaviour in children and adolescents

discipline that includes ________ is particularly likely to foster children’s voluntary prosocial behaviour

reasoning

the combination of ____________ seems to be especially effective in fostering prosocial tendencies in children and adolescents

parental warmth and certain parenting practices

a study found that pairs that had the highest levels of ____________ were almost the most successful at resolving conflicts

moral reasoning

some school interventions have been effective at promoting prosocial behaviour in children, so __________ must contribute to prosocial development

environmental factors

primary prevention

* targets all individuals in a particular setting to prevent the occurence of a problematic behaviour or condition

secondary prevention

* helps individuals at risk for developing a problem or condition with the goal of preventing the problem or condition

tertiary intervention

* a program designed to help individuals who already exhibit a problem or condition

antisocial behaviour

* any behaviour described as disruptive, hostile, or aggressive that violates social norms and harms others

aggression

* any behaviour aimed at physically or emotionally harming others

With the growth of language skills, physical aggression decreases in frequency, and ________ increases

verbal aggression

instrumental aggression

* aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal

relational aggression

* aggression intended to harm others by damaging peer relationships

there is an overall developmental trend towards less physical aggression, but serious acts of violence increase in _______ along with property offenses, and status offenses

mid-adolescence

Those who have ______________ continue to engage in troublesome behaviours and have some problems with their mental health and substance dependence until their mid 20s

low impulse control and poor regulation of aggression

Genetically influenced contributors to aggression

* difficult temperament
* antisoical behaviour is partially influenced by genetics
* influence of heredity on proactive aggression

most are more likely to describe their own aggressive behaviour as a natural reaction to the behaviour of others, but when it comes to their ________, they don’t do this

helping behaviours

reactive aggression

* emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression sparked by one’s perception that other people’s motives are hostile

proactive aggression

* unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire

Children who experience ____________ parenting are at a greater risk of becoming aggressive or antisocial than others

harsh or low-quality

many children whose parents use ________ physical punishment are prone to problem behaviours in early years, aggression in childhood, and criminality in adolescence and adulthood

harsh but non-abusive

parents who use abusive punishment provide _____________ behaviour for children to imitate

models of aggressive

the relation between ______ and children’s aggression can have a genetic component

punitive parenting

parental monitoring may be important as it reduces the likelihood that older children and adolescents will associate with _________ peers

deviant, antisocial

children who are frequently exposed to verbal and physical violence between their parents tend to be more ______________ than other children

antisocial and aggressive

children in low-income families tend to live in low-income neighbourhoods which have more violence and crime, and they also attend low-income schools which do not have the proper resources and also have _______

high violence

these neighbourhoods lack appropriate mentors, job opportunities, and constructive activities that engage children and youth and lead them away from _________

antisocial behaviour

aggressive children tend to socialize with other aggressive children and become more deliquent if their close friends are __________

aggressive

appears children’s ______________ to peer pressure to become involved in antisocial behaviour increases in the elementary school yeras, peaks at about 8th to 9th grade, and declines after

susceptibility

it is often a combination of genetic and environmental factors that predict children’s antisocial, aggressive behaviour and that some children are more _____ to the quality of parenting than others

sensitive

Gene variants can be related to higher risk for aggression in adverse situations like maltreatment and divorce but are not related to aggression in the _______ of the adverse conditions

\

absence

children with these problem behaviours can be treated with individual psychotherapy or a combination of ________________

psychotherapy and drug therapy

positive youth development

* an approach to youth intervention that focuses on developing and nurturing strengths and assets rather than on correcting weaknesses and deficits

What does positive youth development emphasize?

* competence, confidence, connection, character, caring, and compassion.

service learning

a strategy that integrates school-based instruction with community involvement in order to promote civic responsibility and enhance learning

Effects of participation in service learning

* increase student’s empathy, awareness of larger social issues, ability to participate in a cooperative activity, and capacity for making responsible decisions.