Key Terms and Events in 19th Century U.S. History: Abolition, Politics, and Expansion

Abolitionists

A reform movement and activists who sought to end slavery in the United States, ranging from gradualists to immediate-emancipation advocates.

Adams-Onís Treaty (1819)

A treaty in which Spain ceded Florida to the U.S. and set western boundary lines, clarifying U.S. territorial claims.

American Anti-Slavery Society

A national abolitionist organization founded in 1833 to campaign for immediate emancipation and public agitation against slavery.

American System

Henry Clay's economic program promoting protective tariffs, a national bank, and federal funding for internal improvements to unify the economy.

Amistad mutiny (1839)

A revolt by enslaved Africans aboard the ship La Amistad that led to a high-profile legal case and boosted abolitionist attention.

Bank of the United States (Second)

The national bank chartered in 1816 to stabilize currency and credit, later opposed by Andrew Jackson as elitist.

Battle of New Orleans (1815)

Andrew Jackson's decisive victory over the British that boosted U.S. nationalism despite occurring after the peace treaty.

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)

A Supreme Court case where the Court limited the Cherokee's ability to sue as a foreign nation, complicating Native legal claims.

Corps of Discovery (Lewis & Clark)

The 1804-1806 expedition commissioned by Jefferson to explore and map the Louisiana Purchase and the Pacific Northwest.

"Corrupt Bargain" (1824)

The alleged deal in the 1824 election where Henry Clay's support helped John Quincy Adams win the presidency, angering Jackson supporters.

Cotton gin

A machine invented by Eli Whitney that rapidly separated cotton fiber from seed, dramatically increasing cotton production and slave labor demand.

Cult of Domesticity

A 19th-century ideology that idealized women's roles as homemakers and moral guardians of the family, shaping gender expectations.

Declaration of Sentiments (1848)

Document produced at Seneca Falls demanding women's rights and equality, modeled on the Declaration of Independence.

Democratic Party

A political party that grew from Jacksonian democracy, defending the "common man," limited federal government, and expanded white male suffrage.

Embargo Act (1807)

Jefferson's policy that banned U.S. exports to all foreign nations to avoid war, which severely hurt American merchants.

Erie Canal (1825)

A major engineering project linking the Great Lakes to the Hudson River, lowering transport costs and fueling western growth and commerce.

Free Soil Party (1848)

A short-lived party opposing the expansion of slavery into new territories and advocating free labor principles.

Force Bill (1833)

Federal legislation authorizing the president to use military force to collect tariffs during the Nullification Crisis.

"Gag rule" (1836-1844)

A Congressional rule that automatically tabled antislavery petitions, effectively silencing debate on slavery in the House.

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

A successful slave revolt that created Haiti and heightened U.S. fears of slave rebellions and international consequences for slavery.

Hartford Convention (1814-1815)

A meeting of New England Federalists to protest the War of 1812 and propose constitutional amendments, which weakened the Federalist Party.

Hudson River School

An American art movement celebrating landscape painting that emphasized nature, nationalism, and romanticism.

Indian Removal Act (1830)

Federal law authorizing the forced relocation of Native American tribes to lands west of the Mississippi, enabling removal policies.

Judicial Review

The Supreme Court's power to declare laws unconstitutional, established by Marbury v. Madison and central to federal checks and balances.

The Liberator (1831)

William Lloyd Garrison's abolitionist newspaper advocating immediate emancipation and moral suasion against slavery.

Liberty Party

A small political party in the 1840s that pushed abolitionist policies into national politics and opposed slavery's expansion.

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

Jefferson's purchase of French territory that doubled U.S. land area and opened vast territory for settlement.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

The Supreme Court case that established judicial review and the Court's authority to rule on the constitutionality of laws.

Market Revolution

A period of rapid economic change combining industrialization, transportation improvements, and commercialization of agriculture.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

A Supreme Court decision affirming federal supremacy and Congress's implied powers by protecting the national bank from state taxation.

Missouri Compromise (1820)

An agreement admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state while banning slavery north of 36°30′ in the Louisiana Purchase.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

A policy declaring the Western Hemisphere closed to new European colonization and opposing European interference in American affairs.

Nat Turner's Rebellion (1831)

A slave-led uprising in Virginia that killed many white people and led to harsher slave codes and Southern repression.

National Republicans

A political faction supporting John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay's nationalist economic policies, later merging into the Whig coalition.

National Road

A federally funded road begun in the early 1800s to connect the Atlantic states with the Ohio Valley and promote commerce.

Nativists

Americans who opposed immigration and Catholics, favoring native-born Protestant culture and sometimes forming anti-immigrant movements.

Non-Intercourse Act (1809)

Law replacing the Embargo Act that reopened trade with nations except Britain and France to pressure European powers.

Nullification

The theory that states could nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional, used by South Carolina to protest tariffs.

Panic of 1819

The first major U.S. financial crisis caused by bank failures, falling agricultural prices, and speculative lending, hurting many Americans.

Panic of 1837

A severe economic depression triggered by bank failures, credit contraction, and speculative lending that lasted through the 1840s.

"Petticoat Affair" (1831-1832)

A social scandal in Jackson's cabinet over the treatment of Peggy Eaton that reshaped his administration and alliances.

Second Bank of the United States

A national bank rechartered in 1816 to regulate currency and credit, later attacked by Andrew Jackson in the Bank War.

Second Great Awakening

A widespread Protestant revival movement that emphasized personal salvation and inspired social reform causes like abolition and temperance.

Spoils System

A practice of rewarding political supporters with public office, expanded under Andrew Jackson to build loyal party organizations.

Tariff of 1816

The first protective tariff designed to shield American manufacturers from foreign competition after the War of 1812.

Tariff of 1828 (Tariff of Abominations)

A high protective tariff that angered Southern planters and intensified sectional tensions and nullification debates.

Tejanos

Texas residents of Mexican descent who were key participants in Texas settlement, independence, and debates over annexation.

Temperance Movement

A reform campaign to reduce alcohol consumption and its social effects, often connected to other moral reforms and families' welfare.

Trail of Tears (1838-1839)

The forced removal of the Cherokee and other Southeastern tribes to Indian Territory, causing thousands of deaths and suffering.

Transcendentalism

An intellectual movement that emphasized intuition, individual conscience, and nature, led by writers like Emerson and Thoreau.

Treaty of Ghent (1814)

The treaty that ended the War of 1812 and restored relations between the U.S. and Britain to prewar status.

Treaty of New Echota (1835)

A controversial Cherokee treaty signed by a minority that provided legal grounds for the forced removal known as the Trail of Tears.

Underground Railroad

A secret network of routes and safe houses used by abolitionists to help enslaved people escape to free states and Canada.

Utopian Societies

Experimental communities (e.g., Shakers, Brook Farm) attempting social reform and cooperative living during the antebellum reform era.

War of 1812

A conflict with Britain over maritime rights and frontier pressures that increased U.S. nationalism and tested the young republic.

Whig Party

A political coalition opposing Jackson that supported congressional power, modernization, a national bank, and economic development.

White supremacy

The belief in white racial superiority that underpinned slavery, discriminatory laws, and many social attitudes in the period.

Yeoman farmers

Independent small farmers who formed the backbone of republican agrarian ideals and rural political culture in early 19th-century America.

John Quincy Adams

The sixth U.S. president (1825-1829) who supported internal improvements, the American System, and a nationalist agenda.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French leader whose sale of the Louisiana Territory in 1803 enabled the dramatic U.S. land expansion under Jefferson.

John C. Calhoun

A South Carolina politician who championed states' rights, nullification, and the defense of slavery in the antebellum era.

William Clark

Co-leader of the Lewis and Clark expedition who helped map the West and document geography and Native peoples.

Henry Clay

Kentucky statesman known as the "Great Compromiser," architect of the American System and broker of national compromises.

Thomas Cole

Artist and founder of the Hudson River School, known for landscape paintings that celebrated American nature and identity.

Frederick Douglass

A former enslaved person who became a leading abolitionist, writer, and orator advocating emancipation and equal rights.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Transcendentalist philosopher and essayist who promoted individualism, self-reliance, and American cultural independence.

Charles Grandison Finney

A revivalist preacher of the Second Great Awakening who encouraged moral reforms, social activism, and conversion-driven religion.

Margaret Fuller

Transcendentalist writer and early feminist who advocated for women's intellectual and social equality.

William Lloyd Garrison

Radical abolitionist and publisher of The Liberator who demanded immediate emancipation and moral persuasion.

Angelina Grimké

An abolitionist and women's rights advocate who publicly denounced slavery and argued for female activism and equality.

Sarah Grimké

A sister and fellow activist who lectured and wrote against slavery and for women's rights based on moral and religious arguments.

William Henry Harrison

A military hero elected president in 1840 whose presidency was cut short by death in 1841 after the Log Cabin Campaign victory.

Sam Houston

Leader in Texas independence, first president of the Republic of Texas, and later a U.S. senator and governor of Texas.

Washington Irving

An early American writer whose works (like "Rip Van Winkle") helped establish a national literary identity.

Andrew Jackson

Seventh U.S. president (1829-1837) who promoted Jacksonian democracy, the spoils system, Indian removal, and vetoed the national bank.

Thomas Jefferson

The third U.S. president who completed the Louisiana Purchase and promoted agrarian republican ideals and limited government.

Meriwether Lewis

Co-leader of the Lewis and Clark expedition charged with exploring the Louisiana Purchase for scientific and geographic information.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Leader of the Haitian Revolution whose actions reshaped Atlantic politics and alarmed slaveholders in the U.S.

William Marbury

Plaintiff in Marbury v. Madison whose case led to the Supreme Court's establishment of judicial review.

John Marshall

Long-serving Chief Justice whose rulings (e.g., Marbury, McCulloch) strengthened federal power and the judiciary's role.

William Miller

Religious leader of the Millerites who predicted Christ's imminent return, reflecting the era's revivalist fervor.

James Monroe

Fifth U.S. president (1817-1825) associated with the "Era of Good Feelings" and the Monroe Doctrine foreign policy.

Samuel F. B. Morse

Inventor of the telegraph and Morse code who revolutionized long-distance communication in the mid-19th century.

James K. Polk

Eleventh U.S. president (1845-1849) who pursued territorial expansion, leading to war with Mexico and western gains.

Sacagawea

A Shoshone woman who served as guide and interpreter for Lewis & Clark, aiding relations with Native peoples during the expedition.

Antonio López de Santa Anna

Mexican general and president whose actions shaped the Texas Revolution and Mexico-U.S. relations in the 1830s-40s.

Winfield Scott

Prominent U.S. general in the War of 1812 and Mexican-American War known for military skill and later political influence.

Samuel Slater

Known as the "Father of the American Factory System," he introduced British textile technology to the U.S. and spurred early industrialization.

Joseph Smith

Founder of the Latter-day Saint movement (Mormonism) who organized a new religious community in the 1830s and 1840s.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Women's rights leader and co-organizer of the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention who authored the Declaration of Sentiments.

Zachary Taylor

Military leader in the Mexican-American War and 12th U.S. president known for his popularity and brief, independent presidency.

Tecumseh

Shawnee leader who tried to form a Native confederacy to resist U.S. expansion and unify tribes in the Old Northwest.

Tenskwatawa (The Prophet)

Tecumseh's brother who led a Native religious revival encouraging cultural renewal and resistance to American expansion.

Henry David Thoreau

Transcendentalist writer who championed simple living, nature, and civil disobedience in response to unjust laws.

Nat Turner

Enslaved preacher who led the 1831 rebellion in Virginia, which prompted harsher slave laws and increased Southern fear of uprisings.

John Tyler

Tenth president who succeeded Harrison and pursued annexationist and states' rights policies that alienated some Whigs.

Martin Van Buren

Eighth president and Democratic party organizer who handled the Panic of 1837 and continued Jacksonian policies in some areas.

David Walker

A black abolitionist who wrote Appeal to the Colored Citizens, urging resistance to slavery and advocating equal rights.

Mercy Otis Warren

An early American political writer and satirist who commented on republican values and revolution-era politics.

Mason Weems

Popular biographer known for sentimental and moral tales about national heroes, shaping early American legend and memory.