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DNA is composed of…
deoxyribose (sugar), phosphate, nitrogenous bases (A-T, C-G)
In DNA, the sugar-phosphate part of nucleotides… (test question!)
makes the double helix backbone of the two strands
In DNA, two strands of nucleotides are held together by…
hydrogen bonds between the bases, with specific base pairing (A-T, C-G)
genome
an organism’s complete set of DNA
chromosome
one or more unique pieces of DNA. DNA attaches to this
gene
a specific sequence of DNA that codes for s specific protein
locus
location of a gene on a chromosome
alleles
different versions of a gene that occur at a specific locus and code for a specific trait
trait
any single characteristic or feature of an organism
DNA is the code, RNA decodes it through ____ .
transcription (def)
a lot of DNA is “____”, containing repeats and fragments
noncoding
introns
noncoding segments within coding segments
genotype
the genes that an organism carries for a particular trait (ex. the specific “recipe” in a cookbook)
phenotype
the physical manifestation/appearance of the genes for particular trains (ex. the food item made from the “recipe”)
transcription (term)
a copy of gene’s base sequence is made
translation (term)
the copy of a gene’s base sequence is used to direct the production of a polypeptide
step 1 of transcription: recognize
RNA polymerase binds to a promoter site on a gene
step 2 of transcription: transcribe
RNA polymerase makes a copy of the gene by using the base-pairing rules but substituting U for T (instead of A-T in DNA)
step 3 of transcription: terminate
RNA stops making a copy when it encounters a stop code
step 4 of transcription: cap and edit
the copy has extra bases added to the front (cap) and end (tail) to provide protection. Noncoding pieces are removed.
transcription makes a copy called ____ , and after step 4 it moves out of the nucleus.
mRNA (def)
transcription occurs in the…
nucleus
start codon(s)
AUG
stop codon(s)
UAA, UAG, UGA
translation occurs at the…
ribosomes
step 1 of translation: recognize and initiate
the ribosome and the tRNA carrying AUG (start codon) bind to the start sequence on the mRNA.
step 2 of translation: elongate
the ribosome continues down the mRNA, binding tRNA and binding amino acids according to codons
step 3 of translation: terminate
the ribosome will encounter a “stop” codon and the mRNA and completed protein will be released from the ribosome
mRNA (term)
messenger RNA
tRNA (term)
transfer RNA
gene expression
the production of the protein that the genes sequence codes for
gene regulation
whether a gene is turned on or off. Stops cancer.
regulatory proteins
positive control: initiates or speeds up gene expression
negative control: slows or blocks gene expression
operon
a group of several genes, along with the elements that control their expression as a unit
promoter
where RNA polymerase binds during transcription
operator
a regulatory region to which a repressor can bind
regulatory gene
codes for the repressor that binds to the operator
RNA polymerase
an enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during transcription
mutation
an alteration to the sequence of bases in DNA
substitution mutations
“spelling” errors with the wrong base
insertion mutations
an extra base
deletion mutations
missing a base
chromosomal aberration: deletion
gene missing
chromosomal aberration: relocation
gene in the wrong place
chromosomal aberration: duplication
extra copies of a gene
primary causes of mutations
spontaneous, radiation induced, or chemical induced
biotechnology
the use of technology to modify organisms, cells, and their molecules to achieve practical benefits
modifying organisms: chop
cutting out and isolating a gene of interest using restriction enzymes
modifying organisms: amplify
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) makes billions of identical copies of an isolated gene of interest
modifying organisms: insert
using plasmids to transfer DNA from one organism to another. The gene of interest carried on the plasmid is transferred to a bacterial cell. Now in a living cell, the gene can be transcribed and translated to produce the protein product.
modifying organisms: grow
creating a gene library. The bacteria are grown on nutrients, passing genes of interest along as they divide.
CRISPR-CAS9
derived from a natural bacterial immune mechanism that “remembers” viral DNA and uses this precise gene information to cut up future viral invaders.
genetic engineering
manipulation of a specie’s genome in ways that do not normally occur in nature
recombined DNA technology
combination of DNA from two or more sources into a product
GMO’s
genetically modified organisms. produced with recombinant DNA technology. AKA transgenic organisms
transgenic organisms
modified organisms carrying gene(s) of interest
human growth hormone (HGH)
stimulates growth and protein metabolism, can be used to treat dwarfism
gene therapy
inserting a functional gene into an individual’s cells to replace a defective version of the gene. A difficult and complicated process.
cloning
creating a new individual with a genome identical to the donor individuals
DNA fingerprinting
99.9% of DNA from two individuals is the same. Short tandem repeats (STRs) are sequences of DNA that repeat over and over again. They occur in some of the most highly variable regions of an individual’s DNA. The number of STRs differs between individuals.
Short tandem repeats (STRs) [likely test question]
are sequences of DNA that repeat over and over again. They occur in some of the most highly variable regions of an individual’s DNA.
DNA polymerase
an enzyme that synthesizes new DNA strands from a template