Unit Zero: Science Practices Flashcards

These vocabulary flashcards cover cognitive biases, research methodologies, statistical analysis concepts, and ethical guidelines based on the Unit Zero: Science Practices lecture notes.

Cognitive Biases

Mental "glitches" or shortcuts that affect thinking and can mislead us into finding meaning where none exists.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to look for information that agrees with what we already believe while ignoring contradicting evidence.

Hindsight Bias

The belief, after something has happened, that one "knew it all along" or that the outcome was obvious.

Overconfidence Bias

The tendency to believe we know more or are more accurate in our predictions than we actually are.

Perceiving Patterns in Random Events

The brain's tendency to find order or meaning in chaos, such as seeing faces in clouds or believing in lucky streaks.

Experimental Methods

Research methods involving the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect, typically using random assignment.

Quasi-Experimental Methods

Research methods that involve manipulating variables but lack random assignment to groups, often using pre-existing groups.

Non-Experimental Methods

Methods involving observation or measurement without variable manipulation; used to describe phenomena or explore correlations.

Independent Variable (IV)

The specific factor that the researcher changes or manipulates in an experiment.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The factor that is measured as the outcome of an experiment; it is expected to change based on the manipulation of the IV.

Confounding Variable

An outside factor that varies systematically with the independent variable and might influence the dependent variable, clouding the results.

Operational Definitions

Defining variables in specific, measurable ways (e.g., "sleep quality" as number of awakenings) to ensure a study can be replicated.

Random Assignment

The process of assigning participants to control or experimental groups by chance to eliminate the effects of confounding variables.

Random Sampling

A procedure where every person in a population has an equal chance of being selected, ensuring the sample is representative.

Sampling Bias

A flaw that occurs when some members of a population are more likely to be included in a study than others.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings from a specific study sample can be applied to the broader population.

Double-blind Procedure

An experimental technique where neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in the experimental or control group, reducing bias.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the environment.

Case Study

An in-depth, detailed analysis of a single individual or a small group, often used to study rare or unusual phenomena.

Correlational Research

A research design that examines the relationship between two variables; it can identify associations and allow for predictions but cannot prove causation.

Correlation Coefficient ($r$)

A statistical measure of the strength and direction of a relationship, ranging from $-1$ (perfect negative) to $+1$ (perfect positive).

Normal Distribution

A bell-shaped curve where most data falls in the center and $68\%$ of scores fall within one standard deviation of the mean.

Positive Skew

A distribution where most scores are low, but a few very high scores pull the tail to the right and the mean higher than the median.

Negative Skew

A distribution where most scores are high, but a few very low scores pull the tail to the left and the mean lower than the median.

Standard Deviation

A measure of variation that tells how much scores stay close to or spread out from the mean.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme scores to move closer to the average upon repeated testing or with more data.

Statistical Significance (p-value)

A measure indicating if results are likely due to chance ($p \leq 0.05$ is the common cutoff for evidence of a real effect).

Effect Size (Cohen's d)

A statistical calculation that indicates the practical importance or magnitude of a difference between two groups in standard deviation units.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

An ethics committee that reviews and approves research involving human participants to ensure safety and validity.

Informed Consent

An ethical requirement where participants must voluntarily agree to join a study after being told its purpose, risks, and right to withdraw.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its true purpose and any deceptions used, provided to participants.

Nonmaleficence

The ethical principle of "do no harm," requiring researchers to minimize physical and psychological distress for participants.