History: Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution

5

geocentric

earth-centered

Ptolemaic system

the geocentric model of the universe that prevailed in the Middle Ages; named after the astronomer Ptolemy, who lived in Alexandria during the second century

Nicholas Copernicus

A mathematician who discovered the heliocentric conception of the solar system

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

written by Nicholas Copernicus discussing his opinions on our solar system.

heliocentric

sun-centered

Johannes Kepler

realized the sun WAS at the center of the solar system, and the orbits were elliptical (egg-shaped)

Ptolemy

discovered the geocentric conception of the solar system

Galileo Galilei

used a telescope to discover many things about the solar system; tried for heresy by the Catholic church because his beliefs contradicted the Bible. Also suggested that heavenly bodies were composed of material substance.

Sir Isaac Newton

defined the three laws of motion that govern the planetary bodies; discovered gravity; one law could explain all motion in the universe

universal law of gravitation

one of the three rules of motion governing the planetary bodies set forth by Sir Isaac Newton in his Principia; it explains that planetary bodies do not go off in straight lines but instead continue in elliptical orbits about the sun because every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity

Galen

Greek physician who relied on animals for the human form

Vesalius

his "hands on" approach enabled him to create a realistic portrayal of the human body

William Harvey

wrote "On the Motion of the Heart and Blood"; showed that the heart, not the liver, was the beginning point for the circulation of blood in the body; blood flows through both veins and arteries; blood makes a complete circuit as it passes through the body

Robert Boyle

one of the first scientists to conduct controlled experiments. Relationships between pressure, volume and temperature

Boyle's Law

the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it. Relationships between pressure, volume and temperature

Antoine Lavoisier

invented a system of naming the chemical elements; founder of modern chemistry

Rene Descartes

wrote "Discourse on Methods"; I think, therefore I am (grounding religious belief in human understanding); separation of mind and matter; father of modern rationalism

rationalism

a system of thought expounded by Rene Descartes based on the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge

Scientific Method

a systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence that was crucial to the evolution of science in the modern world

Francis Bacon

believed that instead of relying on the ideas of ancient authorities, scientists should use inductive reasoning to learn about nature; invented Scientific Method; believed that man could use science to increase his control and power over nature to benefit industry, agriculture, and trade

inductive reasoning

the doctrine that scientists should proceed from the particular to the general by making systematic observations and carefully organized experiments to test hypotheses or theories, a process that will lead to correct general principles

Enlightenment

eighteenth century philosophical movement of intellectuals who were greatly impressed with the achievements of the Scientific Revolution.

John Locke

wrote "Essay Concerning Human Understanding"; everyone is born with a blank mind; theory of knowledge;

philosophe

French for "philosopher"; applied to all intellectuals--i.e. writers, journalists, economists, and social reformers-during the Enlightenment

Montesquieu

"The Spirit of the Laws"; tried to use scientific method to find natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of human beings; identified 3 types of governments: republics, despotism, and monarchies; invented separation of powers

separation of powers

a form of government in which the executive, legislative, and judicial branches limit and control each other through a system of checks and balances

Voltaire

greatest figure of the Enlightenment; writer; well-known for criticism of Christianity and religious toleration; "Treatise on Toleration"..."all men are brothers under God."; deism...God had created the universe...universe was like a clock, and God the clockmaker

deism

an eighteenth-century religious philosophy based on reason and natural law

Diderot

went to University of Paris; freelance writer; greatest contribution to the Enlightenment was "Encyclopedia, or Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades"...purpose was to change the general way of thinking...became a major weapon for religious toleration;

Adam Smith

he and the Physiocrats founded the modern social science of economics; wrote "The Wealth of Nations"; state should not interfere in economic matters; 3 basic roles in government: protecting society from invasion (army), defending citizens from injustice (the police); and keeping up certain public works that private individuals could not afford

laissez-faire

literally, "let the people do what they want," the concept that the state should not impose government regulations but should leave the economy alone

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

wrote "The Social Contract"...liberty is achieved by following what is best for the "general will" of the governed because the general will represents what is best for the community...some individual liberty is sacrificed for the wellbeing of the whole. "Emile" education should foster, and not restrict, children's natural instincts; emotions as well as reason were important to human development; did not exactly practice what he preached, and did not believe in women's rights

Balthasar Neumann

one of the greatest architects of the eighteenth century; Church of the Fourteen Saints and the Residence

rococo

an artistic style that replaced baroque in the 1730s; it was highly secular, emphasizing grade, charm, and gentle action; used by artists Antoine Watteau and Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (ceiling of the bishop's residence at Wurzburg)

Bach

a renowned organist and composer; one of the greatest composers of all time; wrote baroque

George Frederick Handel

German ...composed "Messiah"; wrote baroque

Haydn

musical director for wealthy Hungarian princes; "The Creation" and "The Seasons"; wrote classical

Mozart

child prodigy; "The Marriage of Figaro," "The Magic Flute," "Don Giovanni"...three of the world's greatest operas; wrote classical

enlightened absolutism

a system in which rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their full royal powers (ultimately failing in the end)

Frederick the Great

one of the best educated and most cultured monarchs in the eighteenth century; enlarged Prussian army; abolished use of torture; granted limited freedom of speech and press and religious tolerance; invaded Austrian Silesia

Prussia

country with few freedoms..very loyal to the bureaucracy

Austria

a sprawling empire composed of many different nationalities, languages, religions, and cultures

Maria Theresa

worked to centralize the Austrian Empire and strengthen the power of the state; heir to the Austrian throne after her father, Charles VI, died

Joseph II

Maria Theresa's son, who made a reform system that failed

Russia

under Catherine the Great, it expanded

Catherine the Great

ruler of Russia; favored enlightened reforms; favored the nobility to keep power, which led to rebellion from the peasants, but she took control of it;

Seven Years' War (AKA the French & Indian War by Americans)

After an attack on Maria Theresa from the king of Prussia (War of the Austrian Succession), Maria fought back by winning France as an ally instead of being Prussia's ally...Russia sided with Austria, and Britain sided with Prussia...led to a worldwide war; Austria accepted Prussia's rule of Silesia, French withdrew and left India to the British with the Treaty of Paris (which also caused the French to transfer lands east of the Mississippi to England...Spain gave Spanish Florida to the British...French gave their Louisiana Territory to the Spanish)...Great Britain was now the world's greatest colonial power

Hanoverians

a new dynasty in Britain after the last Stuart ruler, Queen Anne, died without an heir

Robert Walpole

served as head of cabinet in Britain from 1721 to 1742 and pursued a peaceful foreign policy

Yorktown

last Battle of the American Revolution where Britain was defeated

France

1st country to grant diplomatic recognition to the new American state

Constitution of the USA

created a federal system in which power would be shared between the national government and the state governments

Articles of Confederation

America's first constitution

Treaty of Paris 1763 (ended the 7 Years War / French and Indian War)

made Great Britain the world's greatest colonial power

Treaty of Paris 1783

Agreement at the end of the American Revolution. Granted the US the western territory from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River