Elizabeth I: 1558-1603

What were the differences between Mary I's ascension to the throne and Elizabeth I's ascension to the throne?

- Elizabeth was significantly younger than Mary had been (25 years old).

- Elizabeth was considerably better educated, had a much shrewder grasp of political processes in their widest sense.

- For the most part, she had a shrewder judge of character.

- She had also learned much from her personal and political experiences, inclusing her brief and tempestuous relationship with Thomas Seymour, and what may have been her treasonable implication in Wyatt's Rebellion.

-No interest in government, but took an informed interest in decision making processes, and was determined to preserve the perogative powers of the Crown (making the most important decisions).

What were Elizabeth's short term aims?

- To consolidate her position.

- To settle religious issues.

- To persue a peaceful settlement with the French.

What was the immediate nature of the succession?

- Mary's councillors were aware of the fact that Elizabeth did not share their religious views; many of them guessed that their political careers were over.

- However, they made no attempt to interfere with the lawful sucession as defined by Henry VIII.

- Mary had recognised Elizabeth as her successor, and Philip of Spain had signified his recongnition of Elizabeth's succession when he sent his envoy, the Count of Feria, to see Elizabeth a month before Mary's death.

What were the difficulties of Elizabeth's succession?

- England had suffered a series of bad harvests, thus food was scarce and expensive.

- The country had suffered grievously from a flu epidemic which had caused the highest mortality rate since the Black Death.

- The political and religious situations were delicate; England had fought a disastrous war against France which had resulted in the loss of Calais.

- Question of the Queen's marriage had become subject to endless speculation.

- It was evident that the Catholic faith, as re-established by Mary, would be changed.

What were the key features of Elizabeth's consolidation of power?

- Path to power was eased by the acceptance of her succession by Mary’s key councillors. On the morning of 17th November Nicholas Heath, Mary’s Lord Chancellor and Archbishop of York, announced Mary’s death to Parliament and proclaimed Elizabeth’s succession. Legally he had no right to do so; Mary’s death should, in law, bring about the dissolution of Parliament. Politically, this was an important move as it showed that the political elite supported Elizabeth, a further 9 of Mary's councillors assured her of their loyalty.

- William Cecil was appointed principal secretary - a political partnership, Elizabeth also made key household appointments. Didn’t announce any further appointments, keeping Mary's councillors guessing about her intentions and spectulating about them retaining royal favour.

- Elizabeth showed herself to be familiar with customs associated with monarchs who had newly acceded to the throne by taking herself to the Tower, from which she emerged on several occasions to show her new subjects.

- Elizabeth also proceeded quickly to her coronation.

- Gaining some measure of international confirmation as the Spanish ambassador, the Count of Feria had already visited Elizabeth before Mary’s death and tried to broker a marriage alliance between her and Philip II after the succession.

When did Mary I die?

17th November 1558.

When was Elizabeth's coronation?

15th January 1559.

What were the priorities of the new Elizabethan religious regime?

- To decide on the form of religion the country would experience.

- There were two key aspects to this:

1. The legal status of the Church.

2. The liturgical books to be used in church services.

What was the legal status of the Church?

- Had not been altered with the death of Mary I.

- Until the law could be changed, the English Church remained a part of the Catholic Church of Rome.

- There was never any doubt that this relationship would be severed and that the CofE would be reinstated as a state church with the monarch as its head.

- Would it be:

- Essentially an 'Anglo-Catholic' Church, whose practices remained essentially Catholic even though it had rejected papal supremacy.

- An apparently moderate Protestant Church similar to that implied by the Act of Uniformity of 1549.

- A more radically evangelical Church as implied by the Act of Uniformity of 1552.

What was the Elizabethan settlement of 1559?

- Created a middle way between Catholicism and Protestantism.

- It was established through two Acts of Parliament (the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity), the issue of a set of royal injunctions to enforce the Acts and to meet liturgical needs.

- Thirty-nine articles of Religion were introduced in 1563.

What was the Act of Supremacy 1559?

- Restored in law the royal supremacy in the Church, which had been established under H8 and removed by Mary.

- The papal supremacy, restored under Mary, was rejected.

- The Reformation legislation of H8's reign was restored.

- The heresy law revived under Mary was repealed.

- The powers of royal visitation were revived.

- Described the queen as 'supreme governor' rather than 'supreme head' of the CofE.

- An oath of supremacy was to be taken by clergymen and church officials; there were penalties for refusing to do so (most of the Marian bishops felt unable to take the oath so were deprived of their posts).

- Therefore, restored the legal position of the Crown in relation to the Church, giving legislative authority for the Crown to act in matters relating to the Church.

What were the powers of royal visitation?

- Allowed the Crown to appoint commissioners to 'visit, reform, order, commend and amend all such errors, heresies, and abuses'.

- This gave huge amounts of potential power to commissioners, not least because it did not define the 'heresies' against which they might take action.

How might Elizabeth being referred to as 'supreme governor' be interpreted?

- A conscession to Catholic opinion.

- A reflection of contemporary misogynistic attitudes towards women derived from the teachings of St. Paul.

- A reflection of the assumption that only God could be head of the Church.

What was the Act of Uniformity 1559?

- Ensured that the appearance and services were protestant.

- Everything was uniform.

- Everyone had to attend Church or risk facing a 1 shilling fine.

- Clothing rules and an English book of Common prayer were introduced.

- Specified the use of a single Book of Common Prayer, which was a modified version of the one introduced by Cranmer in 1552.

- Variations in Eucharistic belief were possible in that both the 1549 wording and the 1552 wording were permitted.

- The 'Black Rubric' which had been included in the 1552 prayer book to explain away the practice of kneeling at the administration of the Eucharist, was omitted.

What were the royal injunctions, 1559?

- Set of instructions about the conduct of church services and government, issued in E1s name as supreme governor.

- First injunction:

- Emphasised 'the supression of superstition' (Catholic practices).

- Emphasised that the Eucharist be administered at a simple communion table rather than an altar (clear signal of reform).

- Pilgrimage and candles were described as 'works devised by man's fantasies'.

- Meant an an attack on Catholic practices (like the 1547 ones).

- Parush churches required to purchasd and English Bible (reasserting 1538 injunctions) and a copy of Erasmus' 'Paraphrases' (previously required in 1547).

- Visitors nominated by Cecil to enforce the injunctions were strongly Protestant.

How did the injunctions reflect some of Elizabeth's personal idiosyncrasies?

Her dissaproval for clerical marriage was signalled by the fact that prospective wives of clergy had to produce a certificate signed by two justices of the peace signifying their fitness for such a role.

What was the significance of the settlement?

- Much debate among historians about the settlement.

- The dominant interpretation was put forward by John Neale.

What is Neale's argument about the settlement?

- He argued that the queen faced pressure from radical clergymen, as well as from their allies in the HoC, the so-called Puritan Choir.

- The queen had to back down and accept a much more Protestant prayer book and settlement than she had really wanted.

What is Harguard's argument about the settlement?

- Argued that Elizabeth saw the settlement as final, rather than as a precursor to further reform.

- Many of the subsequent religious controversies of Elizabeth's reign can therefore be easily explicable in this light.

What is Hudson's argument about the settlement?

Argued that Elizabeth and her ministers always intended that the settlement should be firmly Protestant and that there was never any serious intention to restore the first Edwardian prayer book, but that appearances on the contrary had to be maintained, mainly to keep support in a conservative HoL.

What is Jones' argument about the settlement?

- Argued that Elizabeth and her ministers wanted a complete religious settlement from the start.

- The political opposition they faced came not form the Puritan Choir but the Catholic Bishops and conservative peers in the HoL.

- Though the bishops and conservatives grudgingly accepted the restoration of royal supremacy, they provided much more opposition to the uniformity bill, which was only passed in the Lords by three votes.

What was the Treaty of Câteau-Cambrésis, 1559?

- England was in conflict with France.

- The war had gone very badly for England, especially with the loss of Calais which had severely weakened the Crown's finances.

- Elizabeth wanted to extricate England from this war and, fortunately, the financial state of both France and Spain meant that neither Philip II nor Henry II of France and Spain could continue fighting.

- A peace treaty was concluded at Câteau-Cambrésis in April 1559, in which Egland and France reached over Calais.

- France would retain Calais for eight years, after which time Calais would be returned to English control provided England had kept the peace in the meantime.

- If France failed to return Calais, they agreed to pay 500,000 crowns (£125,000) to England.

What was the issue with Francis II's ascension in June 1559?

- Henry II of France was succeeded by his son Francis II in June 1559, who was married to Mary, Queen Scots.

- Francis' ascension brought the strongly Catholic Guise faction to power in France, who sought to use Scotland as an instrument of French policy.

- French troops were sent to the garrison of major Scottish fortresses, much to the alarm of John Knox, the radical Calvinist who was the leader of the Scottish Reformation, and his political allies, the Lords of the Congregation, who were seeking power in Edinburgh.

- This led to conflict, with the Lords of the Congregation requesting assistance from their fellow Protestants south of the border.

What was Elizabeth's view on intervention in Scotland?

- Elizabeth was reluctant to intervene in Scotland.

- Loathed Knox, who had written against the 'monstrous regiment of women'.

What was Cecil's view on intervention in Scotland?

- Cecil strongly supported intervention, as he sympathised with the religious predicament of Scottish Protestants and knew that England would be more secure without a Frenchman in the north.

- However, he also sought the removal of MQS, which would weaken her influence as a potential Catholic claimant to the throne, and wanted to incorporate Scotland within a wider 'imperial' British State, which he considered necessary to the survival of Protestant England.

- This was a minority position on the Council, which was even opposed by his normal ally and brother-in-law Sir Nicholas Bacon.

How did Cecil persuade Elizabeth to intervene in Scotland?

- Played on her insecurity.

- He pointed to the action of Francis and MQS in using the English royal coat of arms on their own heraldic device.

- He suggested his own resignation if E1 failed to support him.

- Therefore, the process of intervention in Scotland is a clear illustration of the way in which decision making in FP could be influenced by both religious considerations and a ket individual.

What was the intervention in Scotland?

- Initially limited to money and armaments, but towards end of December 1559 the navy was sent to the Firth of Fourth to stop French enforcements from landing.

- The Lords of the Congregation were offered conditional support at the Treaty of Berwick in Feb 1560, and an army was sent north in March.

- Army blockaded Leith just outside of Edinburgh where most of the French forces were stationed, from land and sea.

- The siege failed, but other circumstances forced a French withdrawal; the French fleet was severely damanged by storm, and the regent Mary of Guise died.

- Cecil was able to secure favourable terms in the Treaty of Edinburgh in July.

What was the impact of the death of Francis II?

- The Lords of the Congregation were accepted as provisional councillar government, and the Guises fell from power.

- MQS' influence on French FP came to an end and she had to return to Scotland, where she was forced to accept the politcal and religious power of her enemies.

- Her influence had been reduced, but E1 had been achieved mostly through this good fortune and she would proceed more cautiously in the future.

What was the situation in France?

- Conflict broke out between Catholics and Protestants in France in March 1562.

- Robert Dudley, later Earl of Leicester, encouraged Elizabeth to put pressure on the French Crown when it was in a relatively weak state so as to ensure the return of Calais.

- Elizabeth promised the Huguenot leader (Condé) 6000 men and a load of £30,000, with a control port of Le Havre as security.

What were the issues with intervention in France?

- The Huguenot army was defeated and Condé was captured; on the Catholic side the Duke of Guise was assassinated.

- With both sides leaderless, the French factions agreed to accept peace terms and united to drive the English out of Le Havre.

- The English were therefore forced to seak an unfavourable peace settlement at the subsequent Treaty of Troyes in 1564.

What was the impact of the intervention in France?

- E1 lost indemnity she received at Câteau-Cambrésis, and lost Calais permanently.

- This might have been a long term advantage (very expensive and tempting to use as a starting point for invasion), it was a significant blow to E1's prestige.

- Thereafter, she became much more cautious about supporting Protestant continent (possibly too cautious, e.g. Netherlands).

What were the problems with the economy upon Elizabeth's ascension?

- Combination of bad harvest, high mortality rates, high taxation and for many, a significant cut in real wages and there was considerable fear about social instability.

- The high level of mortality, which reduced the supply of labour did, however, increase the bargaining power of survivors.

- It was in this context that various pieces of legislation were proposed during E1s first parliament to deal with a range of problem, but none was passed.

How did the central government deal with the economy?

- Left with two ineffective mechanisms for dealing with the situation.

1. Instructions issued to JPs and other officials.

2. Royal proclamations.

- Often a royal proclamation was an admission of government inpotence.

- Was dealing with problems which it onoy dimly understood.

- Lacked powers of enforcement.

- Difficult for JPs to manage their own counties.

- Would be difficult for bureaucrats to travel across the country investigating rates in every district.

Why was poor relief introduced?

- The problems of poverty and vagabondage remained widespread in late Tudor England.

- There were a number of causes of poverty.

- Partly as a result of the increase in population, real wages for the labouring poor in Elizabethan England were lower than they had been a century earlier, with wage rates consistently behind rises in prices.

- Harvest failures created food shortages, especially in the mid 1550s-1590s.

- The old and the infirm suffered particularly badly.

Offerings of private benefactors continued, but this was no longer enough.

- Cecil was particularly concerned that large numbers of homeless and unemployed people could present a serious threat to law and order.

What were 'deserving' and 'undeserving' poor?

Contemporaries differentiated between the 'deserving' and the 'undeserving' poor, with the former being entitled to receive some form of limited assistance to alleviate their condition, whereas the latter were entitled to be punished.

The deserving poor included the old, widows and those whose disabilities prevented them from securing employment.

How did the Reformation change poor relief?

- Before the Reformation, the main responsibility for providing poor relief had lain with the Church.

- The Reformation had destroyed most such institutions offering poor relief; this meant that alternative forms of relief were necessary.

What did the government do to tackle the problem of poor relief?

- Parliament had made various stumbling attempts to deal with the problem; Acts had been passed in 1552 and 1555.

- The Elizabethan regime continued this process, passing a further inefficient Act in 1563 (this impact was haphazard).

- National legislation continued to lag behind local provision which had been set up in a number of boroughs, most notably Norwich and Ipswich.

- It was not until the 1570s the parliamentary legislation began to get to grips with the problem.

How did the government stabilise the economy?

- The government was more successful in restoring confidence in the currency.

- Both Northumberland and Mary had sought to re-stabilise the currency, but it was Elizabeth who was able to do so.

- Early in the reign a scheme was announced for the withdrawal of debased coins and their replacement of soundly minted coins.

- While some individuals suffered as a result of the scheme, it did ensure that only sound coins were in circulation and the government did not resort to debasement during the rest of the century.

- Prices still continued to rise but at least the government could no longer be held responsible for the problem.

How did Protestants view Elizabeth?

- The Elizabethan settlement was undoubtedly Protestant, but how Protestant?

- Many returning Protestant exiles initially saw the queen as the 'English Deborah', the OT heroine who had protected the Israelistes from their Canaanite enemies.

- By analogy, Elizabeth would protect the godly from what they regarded as the evils and superstitions of Catholicism.

What were the issues with religious reform under Elizabeth?

- Many of the religious problems stemmed from Elizabeth's unwillingness to fulfil the role allotted to her by more religiously enthusiastic councillors.

- This created a fundamental paradox of Elizabeth's reign: her most enthusiastic supporters often dominated a Protestant zeal which ensured their loyalty to the queen which was wholly at variance with Elizabeth's own sceptical and sometimes conservative approach to religious matters.

How was did Elizabeth affirm the Protestant emphasis?

- The Protestant emphasis was reflected in the appointment of new bishops, as all but one Marian bishop had agreed to continue in office.

- Some of the early appointments were of moderates, particularly the appointment of Matthew Parker as AoC.

- Parker had not been in exile during Mary's reign, but was trusted by Elizabeth as he had been a chaplain to Anne Boleyn.

- For new bishops returning after exile, their appointments were based on a conscious strategy to reshape the hierarchy of the CoE along more evangelical lines.

How did Elizabeth retain some aspects of Catholicism?

Elizabeth disapproved of the clergy marrying, distrusted preaching and ensured the preservation of the musical culture of cathedrals and university colleges.

What were the differing views of the religious settlement?

- It is clear that the settlement emphasised the Erastian nature of the CoE.

- The queen's view essentially was that the settlement was merely an act of State which defined the relationship between the Crown and the Church, and it established the Church's doctrinal position conclusively.

- Others believed that the settlement represented the starting point for a process of spiritual renewal which would bring about the establishment of a true Church in England and which saw the English and God's next elect nation.

- This was the view held by many of the queen's key advisers, including Cecil and Robert Dudley, and it was from this view that Puritanism would emerge.

How was the character of the settlement defined over the next four years?

1. The 1562 publication of 'An Apology of the Church of England' by John Jewel.

2. The publication in 1563 of the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion.

What was 'An Apology of the Church of England' ?

- By John Jewel, Bishop of Salisbury.

- Jewel had been in exile under Mary, and argued that the CoE was returning to the true position abandoned many centuries earlier by the Church in Rome.

- Argued that the CoE came as close as possible to the church of the apostles and of the old Catholic bishops and fathers, thus there was an essential continuity between the early Church and the beliefs of the reformers.

What were the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, 1563?

The articles sought to define the difference between the CoE and the Catholic Church. They were broadly supportive of reformed doctrine, especially that which was emerging out of Switzerland, though beliefs.

How were the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion unsuccessful?

- Unsuccessful in achieving the aims of its leading members concerning the remaining features of Catholic practice within the Church and its structures, disciplinary procedures, services and clerical dress.

- Thus, the CoE, though it was rapidly becoming Calvinist in its official doctrine was but 'half-reformed' in its structures.

What were the issues with religious reform under Elizabeth?

- Many of the religious problems stemmed from Elizabeth's unwillingness to fulfil the role allotted to her by more religiously enthusiastic councillors.

- This created a fundamental paradox of Elizabeth's reign: her most enthusiastic supporters often dominated a Protestant zeal which ensured their loyalty to the queen which was wholly at variance with Elizabeth's own sceptical and sometimes conservative approach to religious matters.

What were the issues with religious reform under Elizabeth?

- Many of the religious problems stemmed from Elizabeth's unwillingness to fulfil the role allotted to her by more religiously enthusiastic councillors.

This created a fundamental paradox of Elizabeth's reign: her most enthusiastic supporters often dominated a Protestant zeal which ensured their loyalty to the queen which was wholly at variance with Elizabeth's own sceptical and sometimes conservative approach to religious matters.

What was the royal court?

- Important to Elizabethan decision-making processes, as here E1 could seek advice on an individual basis.

- Part theatre and part patronage.

- Existed wherever the queen was at a particular time.

- Had two main areas; the Presence Chamber and the PC.

What was the Presence Chamber?

A relatively open area to which anyone with the right status or connections might expect to have access.

What was the Privy Chamber?

- More private and more important, though it was considerably less influential than it had been under the kings because the Gentlemen of the PC no loger had the rights of access to the monarch which they had previously enjoyed.

- Admission to the PC was carefully guarded.

Who was the Lord Chamberlain?

- Operation of the court came under their jurisdiction.

- Always appointed a member of the nobility to the post.

- Some LCs were her relatives, such as Lord Hudson appointed in 1585.

What was the Privy Council?

- Formal body in which the queen's principle ministers came together.

- It met regularly, with most meetings attracting an attendance of about 10 members.

- It's importance as a decision-making body should not be overestimated, as E1 often consulted with ministers on an individual basis.

What were the key functions of the Privy Council?

- To adjudicate partly as a court of law when sitting as the Star Chamber and partly when sitting as a Board when dealing with issues of maladministration

- To enforce the religioius settlement of 1559, by requiring JPs to investigate compliance in individual counties.

- To oversee arrangements for national defence by supervising the operation of trained bands in individual counties and serving as lords lieutenant with militia responsibilities in individual counties.

- To enforce a range of laws and regulations regarding issues such as law and order, vagrancy, prices and wages.

- To administer the realm by instructing a range of officials. Councillors involved themselves in the details of local administration and built networks of influence in the counties. Councillors had a considerable influence on the appointment of JPs in individual shires.

- To oversee the operation of, and receive appeals from, the regional councils.

- To manage Crown finances with the Lord Treasurer and the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

- Discuss matters of the state and offer policy advice to the queen.

What was the relationship between Elizabeth and her ministers?

- Important to remember that she intended to rule as well as to reign.

- She was intelligent and sophisticated, and had developed political skills that ensured her survival in difficult times.

- Conscious of the importance of royal prerogative, which she was not prepared to restrict.

Who was William Cecil, Lord Burghley?

- Most loyal advisor - Secretary of State (1558).

- Able minister.

- Appointed by Elizabeth to oversee her estates.]

- Established as E1's key minister and came to dominate the Council - ascent to power was anticipated - had close associates in the Council (e.g. Francis Knollys).

- 1561 - Made Master of the Court of Wards.

- 1571 - Created Lord Burghley.

- Died in 1598.

Who was Christopher Hatton?

- Vice Chamberlain of the Household (1557).

- 1587 - Promoted to Lord Chancellor.

- Rewarded with lands, officers and monopoly of the wine trade.

- Knighted and invested with the Order of the Garter.

Who was Walter Raleigh?

- Flamboyant and a close favourite of a Queen, had vast estates in English and Ireland and the Queen had given him money for exploration and attacking the Spanish.

- Explorer famous for introducing potatoes and tobacco into England - 1558 (named Virginia after Elizabeth).

- 1595 - Sent to the Tower for getting Elizabeth Throckmorton (one of the Queen's maids of honour) pregnant. Although, eventually reinstated at court and entrusted with various diplomatic missions, his days as a trusted courtier were over.

Who was Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester?

- Son of Duke of Northumberland.

- 1555 - released from the Tower where he had been imprisoned for his part in his father's conspiracy to put Lady Jane Gray on the throne in 1553.

- Childhood friend of Elizabeth - but was married to a woman called Amy Robsart.

- 1560 - Amy found dead at the bottom of the stairs in suspicious circumstances.

- 1578 - Secretly married the Countess of Essex.

Who was Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex?

- Vain, arrogant, but charming man of the aristocracy.

- One of Elizabeth's favourites.

- 1601 - Led an uprising to capture Eluzabeth and force her to restore himself and his followers to their rightful officers after he was dismissed from them in 1599 after disobeying order in Ireland. Was later executed.

Who was Francis Walsingham?

- Born in 1552.

- Fervent Protestant, spent Mary's reign on the continent gaining a knowledge of European affairs and languages.

- 1558: Entered Parliament as an MP for lyme regis.

- 1570: Appointed ambassador to Paris.

- Bluntness and extreme religious conviction caused friction with Elizabeth but she respected him.

- Had lots of spies that would inform Elizabeth.

Who was Robert Cecil?

- William Cecil's son.

- MP used by Elizabeth as her unofficial spokesperson in the Commons.

- Carried out Walsingham's duties after his death.

- 1591 - Appointed to privy council.

- Supervised James VI's succession.

Who were the Conservatives in the council?

- Usually drawn from the traditional aristocracy - included the premier peer, Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk.

- Steadier conservatives included the Lord Treasurer the Marquis of Winchester and the earls of Sussex and Shrewsbury (kept away from court due to their positions, reducing the direct political influence).

How was the council reshaped in the 1570s?

- Influence of the traditional conservative aristocracy was reduced with the downfall and execution of Norfolk and Winchester's death.

- Nucleus of firmly Protestant councillors appointed (e.g. Walsingham, Ralph Sadler, Earl of Warwick).

- Their advancement was balanced by the promotion of more conservative figures (James Croft, Christopher Hatton).

- John Guy claims these changes resulted in an 'inner ring' of eight councillors - some militant Protestants (Walsingham), and Cecil - only relatively conservative figures were Sussex and Hatton.

What were the disputes within the council?

- Council offered cohesive decision-making.

- Disputes over foreign policy and a breakdown in relations between Elizabeth and her Privy Council brought about by the execution Mary, Queen of Scots in 1587.

- In general ministers served their queen well.

What weakened the council from the later 1580s?

- Several ministers died in quick succession - Dudley's death in 1588 was a personal blow. In 1597 - Council only had 11 members.

- Queen made matters worse by failing to make immediate replacement - tended to rely on the middle-aged sons of former councillors who lacked their fathers' skills.

- Absence of senior noblemen on the Council - mattered because it suggested the Council no longer included the country's most important families.

- Refused to allow Cecil (Burghley) to retire although his effectiveness diminished during the 1590s - he appointed his son Robert Cecil, to the Privy Council and the latter had to undertake an immense administrative burden on account of his father's ill health.

- Promotion of the younger Robert Cecil angered the Earl of Essex (stepson of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester) - Essex was a temperamental man who made an enemy of Cecil.

What were the factional rivalries in the council?

- Council affected by factional rivalries during Elizabeth's reign but the structure of her government in the early stage of her reign, helped to prevent it from getting out of hand.

- No single minister, not even Cecil, had complete control over patronage - various influential families within the Council balanced one another.

- Thus relatives of the Boleyns featured in the senior ranks of Crown service in substantial members, while the Parrs along with their close connections also featured strongly early in the reign.

- Family connections could overcome religious differences.

- Although Leicester and Cecil disagreed over the queen's marriage, tended to cooperate over other issues.

Why had Burghley and Leicester become rivals by the 1570s (1567)?

- 1567 - Elizabeth considered marrying Archduke Charles of Austria but was worried about whether or not he would be able to restrict his Catholicism to private services

Leicester tried to prevent the match and played the Protestantism card against Norfolk, Cecil and Sussex who were in favour of the match.

- Elizabeth rejected the match and Cecil accused Lecister of exploiting religion for his own end.

Why had Burghley and Leicester become rivals by the 1570s (1578)?

- 1578 - Question of whether to send support to the rebels in the Netherlands divided the council for 7 years - Leicester and Walsingham joined against Burghley as a personal contest for political power deepened with genuine political divisions.

- Differences divided the Privy Council with Leicester gaining the most support - Elizabeth only agreed to send troops in 1585 when Spanish conquest of the Netherlands seemed likely

Burghley’s group commanded the Queen’s support, but Leicester’s party was ultimately successful.

Why had Burghley and Leicester become rivals by the 1570s (1579)?

- 1579 - Negotiations held for a marriage between Elizabeth and the French Duke of Alencon - political advantages such as influence over French policy in the Netherlands but Alencon was Catholic.

- Cecil declared it better than no marriage at all but Leicester whipped up public opinion against the marriage using sermons and pamphlets, killing the idea.

What was the rivalry between Robert Cecil and Essex (1593)?

- 1593 – Essex admitted to the council where he championed an aggressive foreign policy, secretly negotiated with James VI of Scotland to revive the idea of a Protestant coalition against Catholicism.

- His strategies were contested by a faction led by Robert Cecil and Lord Cobham and included Walter Raleigh - they wanted a primarily maritime war policy.

What was the rivalry between Robert Cecil and Essex (1596)?

- 1596 - Essex tried to have his friend Robert Sidnet appointed a Lord Chamberlain then Lord Warden of the Cinque Port, but both jobs were given to the Cobham family.

- Essex stalked his reputation on gaining the office of Attorney-General for Sir Francis Bacon but the Queen refused

Continued to oppose Cecil who wanted England to negotiate to end the war with Spain now that France and Spain had made peace.

What was the rivalry between Robert Cecil and Essex (1598)?

- 1598 - During a debate on who should be sent to Ireland as Lord Deputy - Essex believed that the Cecil faction wanted him in Ireland to increase their political standing during his absence) - Essex turned his back on the Queen and she slapped him for the insult.

What was the rivalry between Robert Cecil and Essex (1601)?

- 1601 - After his disastrous military campaign in Ireland and the Queen’s failure to renew his patent of sweet wines, Essex openly plotted rebellion.

- Supporters = Earls of Southampton, Bedford and Rutland. Other members of his faction (Lord Mountjoy, Robert Sidney and Henry Howard) remained loyal to the Queen.

- Essex failure, forced to surrender as Robert Cecil was well prepared (executed in 1601) left Robert Cecil supreme.

- But by this time the rule of Elizabeth and Cecil had become unpopular and the attitude of Essex and his associates reflected a larger discontent tied in with the queen’s diminishing authority.

Why was Parliament less important under Elizabeth?

- Less important than under H8.

- E1 tended to regard Parliament as a necessary but occassional evil; sometimes she had to put up with it for its tasks of lawmaking, granting taxation and 'giving advice'.

- Occasionally important, but largely a secondary feature of the Elizabethan political system.

How many times did Elizabeth call Parliament during her reign?

13

What was Elizabeth's first parliament called for?

- Jan-May 1559.

- Settlement of religion.

- Cecil, Knollys, Cooke and Bacon helped to push through the settlement.

- Legal status of the Church and forms of worship were estbalished for the whole of the reign.

What was Elizabeth's sixth parliament called for?

- Oct 1586-May 1587.

- Parliament was called at a difficult time, both in international relations and in the aftermath of the Babington Plot.

- Parliament debated the issue of whether or not MQS should be executed.

- E1 disregarded the habits of her entire reign by seeking parliamentary advince concerning what to do with her, with Parliament petitioning for her to be executed.

What was Elizabeth's ninth and tenth parliament called for?

- 9: Oct 1597-Feb 1598.

- 10: Oct 1601-Dec 1601.

- Both because she was short of money.

- 9: introduction of a comprehensive poor law, parliament granted a triple subsidy, but the issue of monopolies generated considerable controversy.

- 10: 1598 poor law was revised, Elizabeth gave her 'Golden Speech', parliament granted a quadruple subsidy, but there was even more controversy over monopolies.

What was parliament's law-making function?

- 438 Acts were passed by Elizabeth's parliaments.

- Most important were related to religion (Acts of Uniformity and Supremacy in 1559 and the penal laws against the Catholics).

- Other important Acts were related to social policy (especially the Acts of 1597/8 and 1601 which addressed poor relief).

What was parliaments function of granting taxation?

- E1 viewed granting extraordinary revenue to the Crown.

- All but two of her parliements asked to grant revenue.

- E1 was frequently forced to restort to levying extraordinary revenue to pay for the Crown's normal expenditure, because her the level of her ordinary revenue had fallen in real terms.

- The persistent failure to reform the system of direct tacation meant that the yield of extraordinary revenue through the subsidy also declined.

What was parliament's function of giving advice?

- Most of the time E1 was not interested in MPs advice.

- She became irritated when MPs ventured into areas that she considered fell within the royal prerogative.

- On the other hand, meetings of Parliament gave useful opportunities for members of the PC and other senior figures to gauge opinions amongst members of the 'political nation'.

- As such, parliament served as a useful means of communication and a clear point of contact between councillors and those who administered the localities on their behalf.

What role did William Cecil play in managing Parliament?

- Played an important role in preparing Crown's legislative programme, 'framing and often shaping bills'

- In such activities he was assisted by the Council's 'floor managers' in the HoC, as first Knollys and from 1576, Hatton.

- He used his own men of business to help him manage the Commons.

- Typically, these MPs were lawyers and experts on parliamentary procedure who could promote measures which Cecil considered important.

How was the Privy Council involved in Parliament?

- Privy councillors often began parliamentary sessions by setting the tone and outlining the Crown's priorities.

- Moreover, PC's frequently introduced bills and sat on the committees that gaev detailed consideration to the content of parliamentary bills.

When did Elizabeth become irritated at her parliaments?

- Mainly when they challenged her royal perogatives.

- She had outbursts of irritation in 1563 and 66 when the HoC, at the urging of members of the PC, sought to debate the issue of her marriage.

- Readily intervened to prevent the passage of bills of which she disapproved and refused the royal assent to some bills which passed through both houses.

- She refused royal assent to 60 bills (including 15 in 1585).

How did religion cause issues with the management of parliament?

- Traditional managment techniques began to have less success by 1593.

- E1 tried to use both charm and flattery but there were issues about how to deal with religion.

- The Crown, urged on by Archbishop Whitgift, sought the passing of a punitive Act against secretaries, even though this was openly opposed by MPs, such as Sir Walter Raleigh, with close links to the Crown.

- One of W. Cecil's associates made a HoC's speech criticising Whitgift and the queen took this as a personal criticism- barring the politicians advancement.

Why was Peter Wentworth imprisoned?

- 1593.

- Argued for a named successor to E1.

- She was infuriated hy an attack on her royal perogative, imprisoned Wentworth and three of his colleagues in the Tower.

- Showed how her temper worsened with age.

Why did the relationship between Elizabeth and Parliament break down towards the end of her reign?

- Issue of monopolies in 1601.

- The debate over monopolies was the one occassion when the Crown's officers lost control over the HoC and this was not helped by the problems faced by R. Cecil who lacked skill as a parliamentary manager and had considerably fewer resources to undertake this task than had been available to his father.

- In the end a compromise was achieved and the session ended with E1's 'Golden Speech' to a crowded gathering of around 140 MPs in the Council chamber at Whitehall.

What was the 'Golden Speech'?

- E1 was likley aware that this would probably be the final parliament of her reign, so it was like a farewell.

- Many MPs reportedly left the Chamber in tears.

Why was Elizabeth expected to marry?

- She was a woman.

- She needed an heir.

- Many felt it would protect England from rival Catholic claimants, such as Mary, Queen of Scots.

Why did Elizabeth not want to get married?

- She felt that the issues of marriage and succession lay within the royal perogative and were not areas for discussion in Parliament or the council.

- Unclear as to her personal reasoning.

- Probably a political decision, came to the conclusion that the disadvantages outweighed the advantages.

Who were Elizabeth's potential suitors?

- Robert Dudley, future Earl of Leicester, and was probably Elizabeth's preferred choice.

- Philip II of Spain, he offered his hand in a polite gesture to Elizabeth but probably lacked serious intent partly because of his profound Catholicism.

- Archdukes Ferdinand and Charles, son of Emporer Ferdiand, both Catholic.

- Prince Erik of Sweden, protestant suitor who was given very little encouragement by Elizabeth.

What were the issues with Elizabeth and Robert Dudley?

- The prospect of Elizabeth marrying him horrified Sir William Cecil, whose own influence would have been seriously eroded.

- The marriage would have created many political risks, a consequence of the mysterious circumstances surrounding the death of Leicester's first wife, Amy.

What was the situation surrounding Elizabeth's marriage in 1563?

- Elizabeth had caught smallpox in October 1562, and it seemed as though she might die thereby creating a small-scale succession crisis.

- Councillors were aware of the problems the queen dying might cause, and they panicked severely.

- There was no consensus as to who his successor might be.

Significant misgivings about each of the potential successors: Lady Catherine Gray was disgraced and MQS was ardently Catholic.

- Elizabeth refused to commit herself to a successor, lucky to have survived.

What was the situation surrounding Elizabeth's marriage in 1566?

- Parliament pressed Elizabeth to marry, some being pressed by members of the PC, including Cecil and Leicester, but their motives differed.

- Elizabeth reacted furiously, banishing Leicester and the Earl of Pembroke from the Presence Chamber, publicly rebuking other members of the Council and summoning members of both Houses of Parliament for a scolding.

- Elizabeth thus reasserted her view that marriage and succession were matters of royal prerogative.

What was the situation surrounding Elizabeth's marruage in 1579?

- Burghley and Sussex suggested a possible marriage to Francois, Duke of Anjou after Elizabeth was declared capable of having a child.

- Nothing came of the suggestion, ending fears that the child would be under French influence.

What was the final succession?

The execution of MQS meant that James VI of Scotland had the best claim, despite being excluded from the succession in Henry VIII's will, and had two sons by (1600) and was a Protestant.

Why did some councillors begin wooing James prior to E1's death?

- Some councillors had a vested interest in remaining in royal favour.

- Essex in particular kept in regular contact with James, and after Essex's death in 1601, Sir Robert Cecil kept in contact with James and eventually ensured his untroubled succession, for which he received reward.

What were the positives of the succession?

- To the very end, Elizabeth refused to name a successor and there is no conclusive proof that she accepted Jame's succession on her deathbed.

- Her authority had ebbed away by this point and arrangement for the succession was already in place.

- Never before had a change in dynasty been so smooth, and much of the credit must be given to Cecil.