Learning (Unit 2)

learning is…

the process of acquiring new and enduring information or behaviors

who studies learning (kind of psychologist)?

behavioral psychologists

why do we jump when the school bell rings?

we have learned to associate one with the other

association learning occurs through ____________

conditioning

classical conditioning:

we associate two stimuli

cringing after you see lightening because you expect thunder is an example of _______________________

classical conditioning

operant conditioning:

a response (behavior) has a consequence

→ we repeat acts with good consequences and avoid acts with bad

learning to share from adult encouragement and learning not to bully from discouragement is an example of ______________

operant conditioning

cognitive learning:

we acquire mental information that guides our behavior

ex. how to act at the dinner table

observational learning:

we learn from others experiences

ex. how to act in high school- you have to rush to claim a table at lunch and learn so it isn’t stolen

Who discovered/pioneered classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov

→ initially was studying the digestive system and then discovered dogs “psychic secretions”

unconditioned stimulus (US)

produces a natural reaction

unconditioned response (UR)

the natural reaction

neutral stimulus (NS)

originally produces no response

conditioned stimulus (CS)

does not originally produce a response but the learner is taught to associate it with US

conditioned response (CR)

happened in response to CS

acquisition is…

the initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship (originally acquiring the knowledge)

how much time should occur between the NS and US?

about ½ second

what would happen if the US (like food) came before the NS→CS (the tone)?

not much, because the dogs cannot associate the tone with the presentation of food if the tone comes after the food has already been presented

how can classical conditioning be viewed as biologically adaptive?

it helps humans and animals prepare for bad (John Watson & Little Albert) or good (Ivan Pavlov & dogs/food) events

ex. snapping of a twig signals a predator’s approach

one trial learning is…

a change in behavior that occurs with only 1 powerful experience

ex. a taste aversion

a taste aversion is…

a conditioning response in which a person/animal establishes an association between a particular food and feeling ill after having it in the past

→ virus (latent) + fav food = puke

→ US + NS = UCR (NS becomes CS)

how does taste aversion aid in survival?

avoiding the foods that make you sick could save your life, or at least keep you from getting sick or contracting viruses

biological preparedness is…

the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only a few pairings due to the survival value of the learning

how could biological preparedness explain phobias?

snakes, heights, spiders, etc. = danger

→ avoiding these allows ones to reproduce and stay stronger, healthier, and safer

higher-order (or second order) conditioning is…

when a new NS becomes a new CS by being paired with a previously conditioned stimulus

ex. bell-salivation pairing → then create a light / bell-salivation pairing

what is true about the strength of a higher-order pairing versus the strength of the original pairing?

the higher-order pairing tends to be weaker than the first pairing

extinction is…

making the pairing go away

presenting the CS without the US will make the CR occur less and less

ex. present the bell (CS) without the food (US) and drooling (CR) at the bell became less and less

spontaneous recovery is…

when you wait several hours after extinction before reintroducing the CS, a CR will likely follow (hope is reignited after a break)…

ex. if Pavlov waited several hours before sounding the tone again, the dogs drooled again

what can be concluded about extinction/spontaneous recovery?

extinction was weakening the CR, but not eliminating it

what if a new, but similar, CS is presented? (ex. presenting a new tone to Pavlov’s dog)

why does this happen?

the CR would still follow (i.e. the dog would respond by drooling)

→ generalization

generalization in classical conditioning is…

responding likewise to similar stimuli

ex. Little Albert generalized the rabbit with his fear for the rat (John Watson → behavioral)

stimulus discrimination is…

when we are taught not to respond to similar stimuli → signals a response will be reinforced & helps researchers determine “can they tell the difference?”

ex. show a dog a red and a green light but only give it food with the red light- if the dog only drools with the red light, then it can be concluded that dogs can see color because the dog can distinguish the color (red) that signifies food from the color (green) that doesn’t follow with food

why is Pavlov’s work still important?

classical conditioning is considered a basic form of learning for virtually all organisms

Pavlov’s work provided a model for scientific study of learning

how are classical and operant conditioning different?

classical conditioning - forms associations between two stimuli → involved automatic response to stimuli

operant conditioning - people/animals associate their own actions with consequences → actions followed by reinforcers increase, by punishers often decrease (must be a behavioral consequence)

the Law of Effect introduced by Edward Thorndike states that…

rewarded behavior is likely to recur (reinforcement)

B.F. Skinner followed Thorndike’s footsteps by…

designing an operant chamber (Skinner Box) to release a reward (food or water)

reinforcement is…

an event that strengthens/increases the preceding response / behavior

ex. reinforce manners or cleaning up because it’s good/positive behavior

be careful about reinforcements, because…

some things could be reinforcers for some but not for others

ex. using ice cream as a reward might work for most, but not those that don’t like ice cream, are lactose intolerant, etc…

shaping is…

gradually guiding the subject to the desired behavior

rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior and ignoring the other responses

ex. teaching a pigeon to turn 360 degrees- reward it when it turns a little bit more each time, ignore when it doesn’t work towards completing the circle

response chains are…

an addition to shaping- learning even more complex behaviors by putting various new responses together

reinforcement means…

strengthening behavior so that it will likely occur again

positive reinforcement…

strengthens a response by adding a pleasurable stimulus

ex. a mother gives her son praise (reinforcing stimulus) for doing homework (behavior)

negative reinforcement…

strengthens a response by removing or reducing a stimulus (usually aversive stimulus)

ex. Bob does the dishes (behavior) in order to stop his mother’s nagging (aversive stimulus)

primary reinforcers are…

unlearned- they simply satisfy a biological need

ex. food

conditioned (secondary) reinforcers get power through…

learned association

ex. money, good grades, etc.

while reinforcement increases a behavior, punishment…

decreases the frequency of a behavior

positive punishment…

adds an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior

ex. a child is his to their teacher (behavior) and the teacher/principal reprimands him (aversive stimulus) in front of his classmates

negative punishment…

removing a stimulus to decrease a behavior, usually undesired

ex. a child is rude to her parent (behavior) and her parents take her phone away (reinforcing stimulus / special privilege removed)

the goal of the consequence is...

what defines whether it is reinforcement or punishment

if behavior is encouraged by the consequence, it is a ___1___, if it is discouraged, it is a ___2___

1) reinforcer

2) punisher

what is a continuous reinforcement schedule and how does it impact learning?

reinforcement every time a behavior occurs

learning occurs rapidly, extinction occurs rapidly

what is a partial reinforcement schedule and how does it impact learning?

reinforcement sometimes, responses rewarded sometimes

greater resistance to extinction

ex. lottery tickets, slot machines

how does time play a role in the effectiveness of reinforcements?

immediate vs. delayed reinforcement

→ rats need reinforcers within 30 seconds of target behavior or else reinforcing the wrong behavior (true for other animals too- if you’re dog pees in the house and you yell at it for this action later, it will be confused and not understand- rather, you must tell it “no” while it is in the act so it can connect the yelling and the behavior)

→ humans can handle delayed reinforcement better as they mature, however, often small but immediate reinforcement/rewards (staying up late watching Netflix) does outweigh delayed consequences (feeling alert tomorrow)

fixed ratio schedule-

reinforce behavior after a set of responses

ex. free carwash after 10 paid washes

once conditioned, high rate of responding

variable ratio schedule- (example? how is response rate?)

reinforce behavior after an unpredictable number of responses

ex. slot machines

high rates of responding (banking on people being hopeful)

fixed interval schedule-

reinforcements come after a fixed amount of time

→ animals respond more frequently as time for reward nears

ex. people checking for mail as the time approaches, dogs waiting by food bowls for “dinner time”

pattern of response choppy

variable interval schedule-

reinforce the first response after varying time intervals

ex. fishing- the reward will come over a period of time, but it’s unpredictable exactly when

tend to produce slow, steady responses

when are the response rates generally higher: ratio or interval?

ratio

when is responding more consistent: variable or fixed?

variable

What did John Garcia and Robert Koelling test/discover?

rat+ CS + radiation = sick (CS could be stimulating taste, sight, or sound)

discovered that:

• even if sickness came hours after eating, the rats avoided that flavor

• rats developed taste aversions but not sight or sound aversions

why did the rats in Garcia and Koelling’s studies develop taste aversions after radiation, but not sight or sound aversions?

food is what they deal with everyday- it’s a bigger part of their life, causing a stronger survival instinct to kick in telling them to avoid the food that made them sick

→ rats survival is tied to them avoiding dangerous foods: taste aversion is adaptive for rats- aids in survival and reproduction

what is secondary disgust?

disgust for something that looks or feels similar to something disgusting in its own right

ex. many people find slimy foods or anything with mucoid texture upsetting

humans are predisposed to value _______ - an adaptive trait

taste

biological predisposition is…

the inherent tendency or susceptibility of an organism to develop certain traits, behaviors, or conditions due to genetic or physiological factors

it is easier to train animals with things that reflect their ________________________

biological predisposition

ex. it is easier for a pigeon to peck to get food than to peck to avoid food

instinctual drift:

even after animals are thoroughly trained, they can still revert back to their biologically predisposed behavior patterns

ex. the orca at Sea World that killed a trainer by drowning her, the tiger that attacked its owner even after being trained and living peacefully with it for years

a cognitive map is…

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

ex. after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

latent learning is…

learning that occurs/take places in the absence of an apparent reward, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

ex. in Tolman’s study, the rats with no food until Day 11 knew how to escape all along, they just weren’t motivated to show it prior to Day 11 (when they started getting food)

insight is…

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution

→ insight learning occurs after little to no interaction with our environment and is instead just an “a-ha!” moment

intrinsic motivation is…

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for ones own sake, you do thinks because you simply want to do them

ex. you read your textbook because you find it interesting, and if there were no grades at stake, you’d still be curious enough to want to learn the material for yourself

**keep in mind: excessive rewards can destroy this motivation- kids paid to play with toys play with them less after the experiment (it decreased their intrinsic motivation)

extrinsic motivation is…

a desire to perform a behavior effectively to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

ex. you feel pressured to finish the textbook reading before a deadline, you’re worried about your grade

coping is…

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

problem-focused coping is…

attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

ex. if our impatience leads to a family fight, we may go directly to that family member to work things out

emotion-focused coping is…

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction

ex. if, despite our best efforts, we cannot get along with the family member you got into a fight with, we may search for stress relief by reaching out to friends for support and comfort

learned helplessness is…

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive/negative events (feels like no way out so you just give up)

**why does perceived loss of control predict health problems? → because losing control provokes an outpouring of stress hormones

external locus of control is…

the perception that chance or outside factors beyond our personal control determine our fate

internal locus of control is…

the perception that you control your own fate

self-control is…

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

conditioning is speedier, stronger, and more durable when the CS is…

ecologically relevant- similar to stimuli associated to life in the wild

→ learn behaviors favored by natural selection

ex. color red associated with reproduction/sexuality

Robert Rescorla showed that…

an animal can learn the predictability of an event

→ the animals learned from an expectancy (a thought)

**contingency model of classical conditioning states that conditioning occurs only when one event reliably predicts another

alcoholics don’t always respond to a treatment where they drink alcohol mixed with a drug that will make them sick because…

through cognition they are aware that it’s the drug that’s making them sick and not the alcohol

**expectations

Edward Tolman showed…

evidence of cognitive processes from studying rats in a maze: cognitive map & latent learning

there is more to learning than…

associating a response with a consequence

Wolfgang Kohler showed…

the idea of insight learning by working with chimpanzees: bananas hung from the ceiling and he studied if the chimps could figure out how to get to the fruit by stacking crates

Martin Seligman showed…

the concept of learned helplessness by strapping dogs to a harness and shocking them with no ability to control the shocks or escape, but later they were placed in a situation where they could escape, but they instead cowered in fear and didn’t even try

Walter Mischel showed…

delayed gratification by offering children a marshmallow, and saying if they waited to eat it they could get two- who waited and who didn’t?

how were Walter Mischel’s findings in the marshmallow experiment later criticized?

there was a replication crisis and it was determined that the results did not have to do with intelligence of a child that was better able to delay gratification, rather their socioeconomic status (poor kids didn’t wait because they weren’t used to waiting for food or expecting more to come, and might not have trusted more was coming, because it hasn’t in the past)

Julian Rotter studied…

internal vs. external locus of control

an internal locus of control correlates with…

• better academic achievement

• better interpersonal relationships

• generally more positive things, but likely harder on themselves when they aren’t as successful

an external locus of control correlates with…

• more resigned to conditions “as they are”

• lower effort to deal with health

• greater sense of satisfaction because if they don’t succeed they blame it on something else other than themselves

Social Learning theory has often been a bridge between ____1____ and ____2____ learning theory

1) behaviorism

2) cognitive

Albert Bandura showed…

modeling and social/observational learning by having children observe an adult playing with toys (violently or normally) and then see how each group would act after (Bobo doll experiment)

social learning is also called…

observational learning

modeling is…

learning by imitating others (especially in social situations)

Monkey-See, Monkey-Do Modeling:

no learning actually takes place, we simply do a response that everyone else is doing

Observational Learning:

learner watches someone perform a behavior and is later able to reproduce it closely (the observer was unable to do this before observing the model)

ex. at the gym you look in the mirror and compare your form to someone else’s

Disinhibition Modeling:

an observer watches someone else engage in a threatening activity without being punished and the observer may then find it easier to engage in that same behavior later

necessary conditions for effective modeling are…

• attention

• retention

• reproduction

• motivation

attention in effective modeling:

one’s characteristics (like sensory capacities, arousal levels, past reinforcement) affect attention