PBSI 302 Final Exam

replicable

reproducible, does NOT mean the study could be HYPOTHETICALLY replicated, but that the RESULT has been repeated

direct replication (exact replication)

the original study is repeated as closely as possible to determine whether the original effect is found in the new data

conceptual replication

researchers explore the same research question but use different procedures. The conceptual variables in the study are the same, but the procedures for operationalizing the variables are different

replication-plus-extension

researchers replicate the original study but ADD some variables to test ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS

ex: original study IVS= laptop vs. longhand ---> added: eWriter and no notetaking

replication projects: one study, many labs

multiple groups of scientists work together to conduct replication studies, and several labs replicate a study at once

- ex: 17 labs tested the facial feedback hypothesis...

replication projects: many labs, many studies

other replication projects coordinate many labs around the world to replicate a variety of studies

scientific literature (aka literature): a series of _________ studies conducted by ________________ researchers who have tested ____________ variables

a series of related studies conducted by different researchers who have tested similar variables

meta-analysis: a statistical analysis that yields a ______________ of a ______________

quantitative summary ; scientific literature

file-drawer problem: a ____________ might overestimate the _____________ because ___________________ haven't been included in the analysis

meta-analysis ; true effect size ; null effects (or opposite effects) ---> basically they didn't include negative/questionable results in a study

questionable research practices (4)

- underreporting of null findings

- using small samples

- harking

- p-Hacking

underreporting of null findings

researchers mislead about the strength of the evidence by not reporting conditions or measures that did not support the hypothesis

- the fix: open materials, in which all study materials are reported publicly

using small samples

In a small sample, a few chance values can influence the data set, so the study's estimate is imprecise and less replicable

- the fix: larger samples are now required and encouraged

p-Hacking

researchers try many ways of analyzing their data, so the result is more likely to be a fluke rather than a true, replicable pattern

- the fix: open data, full data sets are provided

HARKing

The study reveals an unexpected result, but the researcher writes about the study as if the result had been predicted all along

- the fix: preregistration, where researchers publish the hypothesis and study design before the data collection and analysis begin

ecological validity

an aspect of external validity in which the focus is on whether a laboratory study generalizes to real-world settings

cultural psychology

a subdiscipline in psychology focusing on how cultural contexts shape human thinking, feeling, and behavior

- most cultural psychologists tend to emphasize the generalization mode and they have challenged researchers who operate exclusively in theory-testing mode

theory testing mode

researchers are usually designing correlational or experimental research to investigate support for a theory

- external validity is less important than internal validity

- basic research tends to be done in theory-testing mode (Harlow's monkey contact comfort theory)

generalization mode: it is important to use ______________ because the primary concern is _________ validity

- ____________ research tends to be done in generalization mode

- ____________ claims are always in generalization mode

important to use probability samples because the primary concern is external validity

- applied research

- frequency claims

field setting : This is the _______________ ; it has ____________ validity (specifically, ______________ validity)

This is the REAL WORLD; it has HIGH external validity (specifically, high ecological validity)

experimental realism

lab research can be just as realistic as research in the real world (real tasks and real emotions)

The Belmont report (1976) was created to define the ethical guidelines that should be followed by researchers in a variety of disciplines, including psychology. Three main principles for conducting research: ____________, ____________, and _____________

respect for persons, beneficence, and justice

principle of respect for persons

1) autonomous agents : informed consent

2) special consideration for those with less autonomy

--> recognize that people are autonomous agents. protect people's rights, including right to privacy and consent and confidential participation

principle of beneficence

- protection from harm : anonymous or confidential study

- assessment of risks and benefits

--> treat people in ways that benefit them & do not cause suffering. conduct research that will benefit society

principle of justice

balance between people who participate and the people who benefit

--> strive to treat all people fairly & sample participants from the same populations that will benefit from research

integrity

professors are obligated to teach accurately and therapists are required to stay current on the empirical evidence for therapeutic techniques

fidelity and responsibility

a clinical psychologist teaching in a university may not serve as a therapist to one of his or her classroom students, and psychologists must avoid sexual relationships with students or clients

institutional review boards (standard 8.01)

these boards are responsible for making sure that research using humans as participants is conducted ethically

informed consent (standard 8.02)

Explanation of the study must be provided in a written format before a person agrees to participate; the participant signs two forms (keeps one and gives one to researcher).

deception (standard 8.07) - there are two types of deception: _____ & _____

there are two types of deception:

- omission: withholding details of the study from participants

- commission : lying to participants

debriefing (standard 8.08)

When researchers use deception, they must debrief participants following their participation. Debriefing sessions are typically conducted verbally, and the researcher explains why deception was used and the nature of the deception.

research misconduct includes

data fabrication (8.10), data falsification, plagiarism (8.11)

data fabrication

Inventing data to fit your hypothesis (creating it)

data falsification

selectively deleting observations or influencing your participants so they produce research that fits your hypothesis (destroying it or falsifying it)

plagarism

representing the words or ideas of others as your own

animal research (standard 8.09)

research on non-humans and these animals should be treated well and protected from suffering

1.) animals should be treated with as much respect as humans when it comes to research

2.) animals have rights that are equal to those of human rights (principle of justice)

three R's for animal care guidelines

- replacement: find alternatives to using animals when possible

- refinement: how can procedures and aspects of animal care be altered to reduce animal distress?

- reduction: use the fewest number of animals possible

Who is a producer of research?

the ones doing the research, trying to give us information that consumers use

who is a consumer of research?

everyone ; whoever reads journal articles, uses resources, anyone who consumes research

can someone be both a producer and a consumer of research?

yes, we always are both

empiricism (aka the empirical method or empirical research)

using evidence from the senses or from instruments that assist the senses as the basis for conclusions. ; base conclusions on direct observations empiricists aim to be systematic, rigorous, and to make their work independently verifiable by other observers or scientists

a theory is a ________

set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another

a hypothesis is a _______

prediction ; is the specific outcome the researcher expects to observe in a study if the theory is accurate

data is __________

a set of observations

population & sample

Entire group v. Small part of population (Whole v. Part)

Good scientific theories are (4)

supported by data, falsifiable, have parsimony, don't prove anything (weight of evidence)

which feature is most important in our acceptance of a theory?

a) it is supported by data

b) it is falsifiable

c) it is parsimonious

d) it is abstract

A : supported by data

basic research is

the goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge about a particular topic ; usually starting point for more research

translational research is

a bridge from basic to applied research in which findings from basic research are then used to develop applications

applied research is

conducted in order to solve practical/real-world problems

experience has no __________ & is ___________

comparison group & is confounded (third variables)

comparison group

enables us to compare what would happen both with and without the things we are interested in

what are confounds?

in the real world, there are usually several possible explanations for an outcome and these alternative explanations are called confounds

research is _________

probabilistic : means its findings are not expected to explain all the cases all the time (there are exceptions) ; your own experience is only one point in that overall pattern, just because there is a general trend, it doesn't mean your experience will fit that trend

availability heuristic

being persuaded by what easily comes to mind (events or memories that are more vivid or memorable)

present/present bias

failing to think about what we cannot see ex: sherlock homes and bloodletting

confirmation bias

focusing on evidence we like best ; we cherry pick the information we take in - seeking and accepting only the evidence that supports what we already think

bias blind spot

biased about being biased ; the belief that we are unlikely to fall prey to the other biases previously described

components of an empirical journal article + know the order

Abstract

Introduction

Method

Results

Discussion

References

abstract is the

summary of the article

what does it mean to say that research is probabilistic?

a) researchers refer to the probability that their theories are correct

b) research predicts all possible results

c) research conclusions are meant to explain a certain proportion of possible cases, but not all

d) if there are exceptions to a research result, it means the theory is probably incorrect

c) research conclusions are meant to explain a certain proportion of possible cases, but not all

the text give us two major reasons that experience is a faulty source of evidence for our beliefs. Please select the correct TWO choices.

a) experience has confounds

b) experiences are from only one person

c) experience has no comparison group

d) experience has no hypothesis

A & C

If we use the availability heuristic, we are basing our beliefs on

what comes to mind easily

what is a variable

a variable is something that changes or varies, so it needs to have at least two levels or values (but it can have more)

what is a constant

opposite of a variable ; a constant does not vary/change. it stays the same

a measured variable

is observed and recorded (height, weight, IQ, hair color) ; cannot be manipulated

manipulated variable

is controlled

conceptual variables, construct, and conceptual definitions are ___________

abstract, theoretical concepts that we cannot measure directly (ex: anxiety questionnaire)

in order to test their hypotheses with empirical data researchers need to develop ________

operational definitions or operational variables

to operationalize is to

turn a conceptual definition into a measured or manipulated variable

operational definitions or variables can be

tested

frequency claim

describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable ; involve only one measured variable

association claim

argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable ; involve at least two measured variables

variables that are associated are said to _______

correlate

underlying most association claims are ______

correlational studies

positive associations look like

up to the right hand corner ; one variable goes up and another one goes up ; ex: time studied, grade on test

negative associations look like

down to the lower right hand corner ; one variable goes up another goes down ; ex: more meditation, less anxiety

zero associations look like

absolute no correlation/ relationship between scatterplots ; ex: childhood weight, time of dinner (no correlation)

verbs for association and casual claims

association: is linked to, is at higher risk for, is associated with, is correlated with, prefers, are more/less likely to, may predict, is tied to, goes with

causal: causes, affects, may lead to, changes, makes, hurts, promotes, reduces, prevents, distracts, fights, worsens, increases, trims, adds

four validities are

construct validity, external validity, statistical validity, internal validity

construct validity

how accurately/ appropriately did a researcher operationalize each variable? ; are the operational variables in a study a good approximation of the conceptual variables?

external validity

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to some larger population, as well as to other situations ; how did the researchers choose the study's participants and how well do those participants represent the intended population?

statistical validity

the extent to which the data supports the conclusions. it is important to ask about the strength of the association and its statistical significance ; how well do the numbers and statistics used in the research support the claim? ; "41% of teens admit to texting while driving." how accurate is that 41% ?

internal validity

in a relationship one variable (A) and another (B) , the extent to which A, rather than another variable like C, is responsible for changes in B ; how well does the study eliminate alternative explanations? "Music lessons enhance IQ" --> alternative explanation could be that certain kinds of parents both encourage academic achievement (leading to higher IQ scores) and encourage their kids to take music lessons.

criteria for casual claims (3)

covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity

covariance means what?

the study's results show that as A changes, B changes ; high levels of A go with high levels of B, and low levels of A go with low levels of B.

temporal precedence means what?

the study's method ensures that A comes first in time, before B. that the causal variable (IV) ensures that it comes before the measured variable

internal validity means what?

the study's method ensures that there are no plausible alternative explanations for the change in B ; A is the only thing that changed ; when researchers manipulate a variable, they have the potential to control for alternative explanations

random assignment increases internal validity

assigning participants to levels of the independent variable such that each group is as similar as possible ; increases internal validity by controlling for potential alternative explanations

three common types of measures

self-report measure, observational measure, physiological measure

self-report measure (survey and questionnaires)

ask people questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview, for example: operationalizing caffeine consumption by asking "how many caffeinated beverages have you had today?"

observational measure (behavioral measure)

recording observable behaviors, for example: operationalizing allergies by observing how often someone sneezes. for example: operationalizing cleanliness by quantifying how much dust someone has on their furniture

physiological measure

record biological data ex: brain activity, hormonal levels, and heart rate

scales of measurement include

nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio

type of CATEGORICAL VARIABLE: nominal

levels of qualitatively distinct categories

type of QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE : ordinal

ranked order, top 10, distance may not be equal (top 10 in dance, "a tenth of a point.")

all Likert scales are ________ test Q*

ordinal ****

type of QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE : interval

numerals represent EQUAL distances between levels and there is NO TRUE ZERO ex: temp = 0* degrees doesn't mean lack of temperature, IQ score = 0 doesn't mean lack of intellect

type of QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE : ratiO

numerals represent equal intervals and there IS A TRUE ZERO ( 0 = a true absence of _____) 0 height = no height , number of exam questions got wrong

reliability means

how consistent the results of a measure are

validity means

accuracy