AP Euro Time Period 4

Second Industrial Revolution

Era marked by technological advancements like chemicals, airplanes, and the internal combustion engine.

HMS Dreadnought

Revolutionary battleship that outclassed all others, sparking a new arms race.

Alliance System

Network of agreements aimed at preventing war but eventually contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

Imperialism

Competition for global empires, including internal European imperialism like the Austrian Empire.

Nationalism

Strong identification with one's nation, leading to tensions in multi-ethnic empires like Austria-Hungary.

Assassination of Franz Ferdinand

Event triggered by Serbian nationalists, leading to the start of World War I.

Offensive Technologies in WWI

Includes machine guns and poison gas, leading to trench warfare and stalemates.

Trench Warfare

Stalemate strategy in World War I where battles lasted months with minimal territorial gains.

US Intervention in WWI

First involvement of the United States in a European conflict, marking a shift in global power dynamics.

Russian Revolution

Series of events leading to the overthrow of the Russian Tsarist autocracy and the rise of the Soviet Union.

1905 Revolution

Uprising in Russia leading to the release of the October Manifesto, promising reforms.

October Manifesto

Document issued by Nicholas II in 1905, promising a constitution and a representative body in Russia.

Tsarist Government

Russian monarchy overthrown during World War I

Provisional Government

Temporary government after Tsarist collapse, overthrown by Lenin

Leninism

Updated form of Marxism with a revolutionary vanguard

Marxism

Belief in violent revolution for proletariat ascendancy

Class Consciousness

Awareness of one's social class and interests

Revolutionary Vanguard

Educated group guiding working class towards revolution

War Communism

Early attempt at complete communist society under Lenin

NEP (New Economic Policy)

Lenin's policy allowing controlled petty capitalism

Stalinism

Collective farming and five-year plans under Stalin

Armistice

Ceasefire agreement ending World War I

League of Nations

International organization for peace post-World War I

Treaty of Versailles

Peace treaty imposing war guilt and reparations on Germany

Great Depression

Severe worldwide economic downturn in the late 1920s

Nazism

Ideology of the Nazi Party under Adolf Hitler

Fascism

Totalitarian ideology controlling public and private life

Spanish Civil War

Conflict in Spain with fascist and communist involvement

Totalitarianism

Government control over all aspects of society

Kristallnacht

Night of anti-Jewish violence in Nazi Germany

Blitzkrieg

Fast-moving warfare strategy used by Germany in World War II

Axis Powers

Military alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan in World War II

Winston Churchill

British leader during World War II, known for rallying support

Jet Engines

New military technology during World War II

V2 Rockets

German rockets launched at Britain during World War II

Nuclear Weapons

Atomic bombs used by the United States in World War II

Barbarism

Extreme cruelty and brutality

Dadaism

Art movement rejecting rationalism and embracing nonsense

First Wave Feminism

Movement for women's suffrage after World War I

Militarism

Policy of glorifying military power and maintaining a strong army

Alliances

Agreements between nations to support each other

The Cold War

geographical and ideological struggle between the Soviet Union and U.S from the end of WW2 to the collapse of the USSR in 1989

• dominated global politics and threatened the peace of Europe (that was divided between NATO and the Warsaw Pact)

• Emergence: U.S thought Stalin was in a global plot to subvert capitalism and democracy. USSR saw U.S, as a threat to their security and aims

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization— alliance of countries committed to the goals of the North Atlantic Treaty made in 1949.

• Transformed west (of Europe + U.S) into a bloc

• When West Germany , Greece, and Turkey joined later, the U.S.S committed to defending allies outside the western hemisphere for the first time

Europe divided between NATO and the Warsaw Pact

lalalala

Warsaw Pact

alliance of Eastern European socialist states, dominated by the USSR

• a series of bilateral treaties for close ties and mutual assistance governed Soviet relations with Eastern Europe

The separation of Europe into 2 unfriendly blocs was caused by NATO and the Warsaw pact

The Cold War had taken firm shape in Europe

Containment

American policy of resisting soviet expansion and influence in the expectation that eventually it would collapse.

• directed the broad outlines of U.S foreign policy for the next 40 years

• Transformed international situation, led U.S to enter alliances, make military ventures, send money abroad, etc. in a commitment to anticommunism

• Led U.S to become a permanent player in European international relations

Truman Doctrine

Set forth when President Truman asked Congress to provide funds to support Greece and Turkey

• advocated a policy of support for free people who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures anywhere in the world

• Major aspect/example of containment

Marshall Plan

name for the U.S’s European Recovery Program

• For West Europe, post-war poverty and hunger fueled the growth of communist parties so the U.S provided broad economic aid to European states on the solder condition that they work together for their mutual benefit

• Some eastern states showed interest but were forbade by the USSR to join

• Restored prosperity to Western Europe and set the stage for Europe’s unprecedented economic growth

• Major aspect/example of containment

Cominform

Communist Info Bureau

• Established at a Stalin-called meeting in Warsaw in 1948 of all global communist parties

• Revival of the old Cominterm, to spread revolutionary communism throughout the world

• Establishment ended the era of the popular front when communists cooperated with non communists

• After the est., Stalin brutally displayed his new policy of bringing governments of East Europe directly under Soviet control

Josip Tito

Catalyst for Stalin’s harsh tightening of his policies across Eastern Europe due to Tito’s success in freeing his country from Soviet domination as the leader of communist Yugoslavia

• his death would lead to civil war in Yugoslavia in chapter 22

Berlin Blockade

precontext: post-war division of Germany. U.S wanted a self-sufficient Germany (restoring its industrial capacity. USSR wanted to dismantle German industry. Allies divided on how to treat Germany post-war

• when western powers went forward with a separate constitution for the west sectors of Germany, the USSR left the Allied CC

• The actual blockade; Soviets feared the fact that the new Western currency was circulating in Berlin at better rates than their own. So, they chose to seal the city off by closing all railroads and highways from Berlin to West Germany

• Purpose was to drive Western powers out of Berlin

• Western allies airlifted supplies for a year and Soviets forced to reopen access. The incident increased tensions and hastened the separation of Germany into two states. The 2 Germanys would remain central to the geopolitics of the Cold War

Balfour Declaration

In 1917, Balfour (GB foreign secretary) declared that Britain favored the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. Conflict between the migrating Jewish people and the Arabs already living in Palestine ensued.

Reason; after WW2, it felt morally right to do something for displaced Jewish refugees

Korean War

1950: North Korea invaded South Korea across the 38th parallel. U.S intervened under UN authority. Sought to halt communism. When Chinese sent troops for North Korea, the U.S had to retreat. - —

Eisenhower administration concluded an armistice ending the Korean War and restoring the border.

• Confirmed U.S government’s faith in containment (and was a successful application)

• Transformed the Cold War into a global rivalry that ranged beyond Europe

Krushchev

After Stalin, power and influence began to devolve on Nikita Krushchev. Became premier in 1956. His rise ended collective leadership

• Krushchev era witnessed a retreat from Stalinism but not authoritarianism, he sought to reform Soviet system but maintain dominance of the Communist party

• Made efforts to meet demands for consumer goods and decentralize the economy

• HIs secret speech that denounced Stalin opened way for genuine criticism of the Soviet government

Suez Intervention

1956: President Nasser of Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal. War broke out between Egypt and Israel. Britain and France seized the opportunity to intervene but the U.S and USSR refused to support. Egypt retained control of the canal

• proved that without U.S support, Western Europe could no longer impose their will on the rest of the world

The Hungarian Uprising

1956: trouble for the Soviet Union. Demonstrations of sympathy for the Poles led to street fighting. Hungarian communists installed a new ministry led by Imre Nagy. Would ultimately be invaded by Soviet troops and suppressed

Imre Nagy

Led the new Hungarian ministry.

• sought a more independent Hungary

• Called for removal of Soviet troops and neutralization of Hungary and withdrawal from the Warsaw pact

• Upon these calls, the USSR deemed it unacceptable and invaded Hungary, deposed Nagy, and imposed Kadar as premier

Events of 1956 (Suez and Hungary)

solidified the U.S and USSR as superpowers

Berlin Wall

• part of the most difficult period of the Cold war

• Throughout 1961, thousands of refugees from East Germany crossed the border in to West Berlin. Embarrassed East Germany and hurt economy, showed USSR’s inability to control East Europe

• Consequently— East Germany with Soviet support built a concrete wall along the border between East and West Berlin, halting the flow of refugees and bringing U.S commitment to West Germany into doubt

• Opened again in 1989 after the East German government resigned when Gorbachev didn’t support them

Cuban Missile Crisis

• most dangerous days of the Cold war

• represented another facet of the globalization of the Cold War (now into the Americas)

• precontext: Cuba est. a communist government and became a Soviet ally

• 1962: USSR secretly began to place nuclear missiles in Cuba. JFK’s government blockaded Cuba, halted missile shipments, and demanded removal. After a tense week with a possibility of nuclear war, the Soviets backed down and the crisis ended.

• Undermined Krushchev’s credibility and caused questioning of Soviet commitment to the security and survival of their allied communist regimes

• Last major Cold War confrontation to threaten Europe directly. In 1963, the U.S and USSR concluded a nuclear ban treaty.

Brezhnev

became a dominant figure in the USSR after Kruschev

• declared the right of the USSR to interfere in the domestic politics of other communist countries (invaded Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan)

• foreign policy continued attempts to reach an accommodation with the U.S and also continue the expansion of Soviet influence

Invasion of Czechoslovakia

precontext: government of Czechoslovakia experimented with a more liberal communism. Their leader Dubcek expanded freedom of discussion + intellectual rights

• USSR and Warsaw allies sent troops into Czechoslovakia and replaced Dubcek with Soviet preferred communist leaders.

• Showed how any liberalization could trigger Soviet repression

detente

President Nixon began a policy of detente with the USSR, the two countries concluded agreements on trade and reducing strategic aims.

• policies like the Helsinki Accords cooled relations between the 2

• During this period of detente, the USSR pursued an activist foreign policy around the world.

Invasion of Afghanistan

USSR had built up lots of military strength by 1979, Brezhnev government decided to invade Afghanistan (had big consequences)

• sent troops to ensure influence in Central Asia and install a puppet Afghan government.

• U.S responded by showing immense disapproval, supported Afghan resistance

• Soviets failed/ lost to Afghanistan’s guerilla warfare

• The military failure of the Afghan invasion sapped Soviet strength for ten years and demoralized the USSR

Solidarity

precontext: John Paul II opened resistance and leadership against communism in Poland

• independent union led by Lech Walesa that the Polish communist government promised the workers/strikers the right to organize

• Part of an extraordinary liberalizing Polish experiment, however, ended abruptly when the new Polish leader imposed martial law and arrested the leaders of the union

• During Gorbachev: emerged and legalized. Poland becomes noncommunist under Gorbachev approval

Reagan

President of the U.S that intensified Cold War rhetoric

• relaxed grain embargo on the USSR and emphasis on human rights

• Increased U.S military spending and developed a high tech military program (Star Wars) that forced the USSR to spend too much on military armaments when it couldn’t afford to— helping bring about its collapse

decolination

transformation of a lot of Africa and Asia into independent nations was the most remarkable global political event of the second half of the 1900s. Nationalist movements during interwar and the distraction of WW2 left countries less able to maintain their imperial positions abroad.

• Liberal and democratic war aims of the Allies undermined colonialism

• the U.S and UN opposed it

• - Cold War complicated decolonization as the U.S and uSSR tried to use new decolonized countries as tools of power and influence in the war

Gandhi

his anticolonial movement gripped the Western World more than any other

• leader of the nationalist movement in India

• Used the power of passive resistance (nonviolence) and inspired a movement of passive resistance to British rule in India from 1920s-1940s

• Distinguished himself as a leader by his insistence on religious toleration

• During WW2- called on British government to leave India. British government which was unsure of its ability to maintain control— left

• Most famous anticolonial leader of the 1900s

Vietnam

North Vietnam wanted to reunite the country under Communism. South Vietnam fought to keep this from happening. The United States helped South Vietnam, but North Vietnam won the war in 1975

• Shows global reach of Cold War

• U.S intervention affected the entire Western world. People globally began to regard the U.S not as a protector of liberty but as an ambitious, aggressive, and cruel power trying to keep colonialism alive

Ho Chi Minh

turned a nationalist movement against French Colonial rule into the Indochina Communist Party (and was leader of it)

• Major anticolonial, nationalist leader

• Was communist but did not use Soviet or Chinese help

• Declared Vietnamese independence in September 1945 under the collation of Viet Minh

Viet Minh

coalition of nationalists that soon became communist-dominated

• was what Ho Chi MInh declared independence under

• Led Northern Vietnam in the civil/colonial war that emerged after decolonization

U.S intervention

Est. of the Communist republic of China led U.S to see the French Colonial war against Ho Chi Minh as integral to the Cold War. As the war devolved into a fight between the North Viet Minh and anticommunist South, the U.S supported the south

Ngo Dinh Diem

Vietnamese politician who was a strong noncommunist nationalist. Supported by the U.S

• established a Republic of Vietnam in South Vietnam

• overthrew by an army coup (with deep U.S involvement)

National Liberation Front/Viet Cong

NLF founded with the goals of overthrowing Diem, unifying Vietnam, reforming the economy, and outing the U.S. It was anticolonial, nationalist, and communist

• Military arm was called the Viet Cong, aided by the Northern government

• After a lot of warfare and the involvement of 500,00 Americans, Saigon (Ho Chi Minh city) fell to Viet Cong and Vietnam united (war over)

Mikhail Gorbachev

last leader of the USSR, accession to power began the collapse of the USSR

• last great attempt to reform the Soviet system, began the most remarkable changes in the USSR since 1920s

• Failures of his policies undermined Soviet regime and led to the collapse of communism

• Primary goal was to revive the economy to raise the standard of living

Perestroika

“restructuring” of the economy

policy that reduced the size and importance of the centralized economic ministries. Confronted labor discontent. Began to advocate private ownership and liberalization of economy to free market mechanisms.

• Economy remained stagnant/in decline. Economic failures led Gorbachev to pursue bold political reforms

Glasnost

Gorbachev allowed extraordinary public debate and discussion about Soviet history and the Communist party

• termed glasnost (openess0

• Policy of open discussion brought to the fore the discontent of all people like national minorities in the USSR that wanted political anatomy. Gorbachev’s ineptness at addressing these ethnic complaints would create national discontent

Velvet Revolution

Revolution in Czechoslovakia rapidly followed the breach of the Berlin Wall. Popular new leader against the communist party was Vadav Havel.

• soviet bloc acknowledged the 1968 invasion of CS as a mistake. Havel’s group forced president Husak to resing

• Havel elected president

The Collapse of the USSR

Gorbachev believed that the USSR couldd no longer to support communist governments or uphold authority. Also concluded that its communist party must restructure itself.

• Gorbachev’s failure to negotiate new constitutional arrangements between the republics and the central government may have been the most important reason for the rapid collapse of the USS

August 1991 Coup

Turning point in Gorbachev’s rule and the events of his policy.

• Cpmservative forces that Gorbachev had brought into the government attempted a coup. Troops occupied Moscow, Gorbachev on house arrest while on vacation.

• Forces of political and economic reaction tried to seize control

• On the day of the coup: Yeltsin denounced it and asked for help to maintain the USSR movement towards democracy

• Coup collapsed. From that point on: Yeltsin the dominant political figure. THe Communist Party, compromised by its participation in the coup, collapsed as a political force.

• The USSR ceased to exist. Gorbachev left office. Commonwealth of INdependent States est.

• Collapse of EUropean communism closed era of marxist-dominated socialism

Yeltsin

new dominant political figure of Russia. Strongest leader within the new Commonwealth.

• Faced serious problems but consolidated authority by militarily crushing pro-parliament rioters.

• Engaged in war in Chechnya

• Privatized industries during the presidency of Russia but the stagnant economy caused more unrest. Resigned at the turn of the century.

Chechnya

Yeltsin central government at war in the Islamic province of Chechnya. Russians forces held off a rebel victory but no clear conclusion.

Civil War of Yugoslavia

precontext: Yugoslavia had 7 different national groups with historical ethnic disputes. Each lived in republics or autonomous areas within Tugoslavia. Joseph Tito tried to mute ethnic differences through power-sharing, but after his death— economic difficulties undermined government authority and Yugoslavia dissolved into civil war

• Violence escalated as Serbia was determined to maintain a unitary Serb-dominated Yugoslavia. Croatia equally wanted to secure independence. Ethnic conflict between the 2 forces.

• Bosnian genocide in the midst of the war pursued by the Serbs where they pursued “ethnic cleansing’, killing many Bosnian Muslims.

• Civil war came to a head in 1995 when NATO forces carried out strategic air strikes. Leaders of the warring forces negotiated a peace agreement in Ohio— independent Bosnia and complex agreement.e

Vladimir Putin

became president of the Russian federation in 2000, moved to establish position as a nationalistic leader of the federation.

• renewed war in Chechnya, gained political support

• sought to dimish local autonomy and centralize power, did so by moving against leading oligarchs and wealthy powerful figures

• Imprisoned oops + used censorship

• During his rule: economy improved due to oil resources in Russia

• Under Putin: trade off between political freedom and economic stability

• Became prime minister and chief political figure of Russia

• determined to use new wealth to reassert Russia’s position as a major power

• Invasion of Georgia marked a resurgence of Russian influence after USSR collapse

The Iranian Revolution

1979, transformed the Middle East

• Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini United both the middle and lower classes of Iran to overthrow a repressive but modernizing government that had cooperated with the US for a long time

• For the first time: a religiously dominated government defining its mission in Islamic and nationalistic terms took control of a major state

• Revolutionary government was a theocracy. Revolution shocked the world by challenging the westernization of Iranian society

• Embodied Islamic fundamentalism

Taliban

rigorist Muslims that seized control of Afghanistan after Soviet forces withdrew from the country

• imposed their own version of Islamic law involving strict regimentation fo women's nd public executions, floggings, and mutilations for any offenses

• Terrorist attacks on the U.S led to the U.S attacking back and rapidly overthrowing it. Regrouped in 2008

Al Queda

groups of Muslim terrorists with permission from the Taliban to establish training camps in their country. Supplied the terrorists that carried out 9/11.

Saddam Hussein

Leader of the Iraq government

• Remained in power and continued to oppress his own people.

• In the wake of 9/11, U.S Bush government wanted to overthrow Hussein and remove any Iraqi weapons of mass destruction.

• U.S and Britain, supported by 30+ nations, invaded Iraq and after 3 weeks, the Iraq army and Hussein government collapsed

• Invasion marked new divisive era in relations between U.S and Europe

• Hussein tried and executed for crimes against humanity in 2006

21 in perspective

From 1500-1900, Europe dominated the world but not anymore

• World War II → political collapse of Europe → U.S and USSR Theo only two superpowers

• Cold War and Decolonization major events of the period

• After the collapse of the uSSR- the US was the only super power

• U.S conflict with the middle East shows a new chapter of interaction between regions Europe used to dominate

Christian democratic parties

In Europe, social democratic parties often shared power with various Christian democratic parties. Usually leading coalition governments, these parties were a major feature of new post-war politics. Largely Roman Catholic, their hallmarks were democracy, economic growth, and anti-communism.

• communists systematically excluded from western governments

Welfare state

The Great Depression, authoritarianism, and WW2 changed European perspectives on social welfare. Governments spent more on social welfare than on military.

• post ww2: concept emerged that social insurance against predictable risks was a social right and should be available to all citizens.

• First major nation to create a welfare state was Great Britain

• Spread of welfare and legislation related to Cold Wwar and domestic policy

• Capitalist states believed they had to provide security for their people to disarm the appeal of communism

• Welfare system:hallmark of European postwar prosperity but challenged by service costs and population implications

Clement Atlee

created the first welfare state under his Labor Party ministry. most important part of his welfare state: national health service

Margaret Thatcher

most influential political leader in reasserting the importance of markets and resisting the power of labor unions

• first female prime minister (1979-90)

• Cut taxes and sought to curb inflation and roll back any socialist policies

• Privatized many nationalized industries

• Thatcher revolution: redirected British economy, government and brutally curbed labor unions

Simone de Beauvoir

wrote the most influential post war work on women’s issues “The Second Sex”

• communicated the difference being a woman had made in her life

• Argued that women experienced distinct disadvantages

Feminism

recent feminism has become less political and more social— offering a broader critique on Europaen culture and emphasizing the independence of women and issues particular to them

existentialism

intellectual movement that best captured the predicament and mood of mid 20th century European culture

• post war philosophy that holds that human beings are totally responsible for their acts and that this responsibility causes them dread and anguish

• Continuation of the 19th century revolt against reason and challenged pride in rational human achievement

• Intellectual and ethical crisis of WWI challenged human rationality and improvement

• Thrived from trauma of WW2

• Foreran by romanticism as it questioned reason in some ways

• Main themes were death, fear, and ananxiety touchstone of philosophical truth became the experience of the individual under extreme conditions

• Dreadful freedom

• Protested against a world where reason, tech, and politics created war and genocide

• Reflected uncertainty of social institutions and ethical values in the era of the world wars

Americanization

refers to the major economic and military influence that the U.S exerted on Western Europe. Also through popular culture. Also acknowledges concerns about cultural loss as many American things threaten Europe’s unique qualities. Outlets, malls, companies, entertainment of the U.S and English as a common language are examples of Americanization

Environmentalism

expansion of economy led to debates about its effect on the environment. by the 1980s: environmentalists had developed real political clout. Concern for issues like global warming commanded attention of global governments

• most important environmental group: german greens

Green Movement

p. originated among radical student groups in the late 1960s. Anticapitalist, blamed bussinesses for pollution. Antinuclear, avoided violence, sought political presence through the electoral prcoess