ANISCI103 - EXAM 1

Monogastrics diet

• 1 stomach

• acid and digestive enzymes

• depend on Concentrate fees ( <18% CRUDE FIBER- dry matter basis)

Herbivore, monogastric, hindgut fermenter diet

• microbial breakdown and fermentation of forage (>18% CRUDE FIBER)

  • occurs after stomach (cecum or L. intestines)

Herbivore. monogastric, Foregut fermenter diet

• cow stomach

  • forestomach: rumen (40-60gal), reticulum (2-5 gal), Omasum (4-15gal)

  • true stomach: abomasum (4-7gal)

• carbohydrates in feed

  • structural cell wall (neutral detergent fiber) → ex. cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin

  • nonstructural cell contents (ex. sugars, starches)

• MICROBIAL FERMENTATION AND DIGESTION

  • volatile fatty acids (VFAs): acetic, butyric, and propionic

  • gases: methane gase + carbon dioxide

  • lactate

what is the goal of animal nutrition?

balenced ration / diet

what is the flow of food in a hindgut fermenter?

1. mouth (salivary glands)

2. esophogus

3. stomach

4. small intestine (liver, pancreas)

5. large intestines (cecum +/or colon)

6. rectum

what is an animals signalment based on?

• species

• weight

• age

• stage and level or production

• nutrient requirements (feeding standards)

what is eructation?

expulsion of gases by regular reticuloruminal contractions

what concludes of VFAs?

• volatile fatty acids (PROVIDE UP TO 80% OF RUMINANTS ENERGY NEEDS)

  • acetic acid:

    • fatty acids

    • muscle metabolism

    • body fat

    • milk fat

  • butyric acid

    • energy for rumen wall

    • converted to ketone = B-hydroxybutyrate (B-HBA) used for fatty acid synthesis

  • propionic acid:

    • LIVER = made into glucose and lactose

how does energy balance occur in Ruminants?

• propionic acid is normally absorbed from the rumen and sent to the LIVER

• propionic acid is then metabolized to oxaloacetate (OAA) which can be metabolized into glucose or used to help run the Krebs cycle for ATP

what information goes in the stage and level of production of an animal?

• growth

• maintenance

• fattening

• production

• reproduction

• work

• geriatric

what is a balanced ration?

diet contains all the nutrients an animal needs in the right proportions & amounts

what defines nutrients?

• feed constituents necessary for cells to live, grow, and function

  • composed of elements or compounds

    • water

    • carbohydrates

    • lipids

    • proteins

    • vitamins

    • minerals

How do animals lose water and why is it necessary?

• ongoing loses of water:

  • saliva

  • urine and feces

  • sweat

  • milk

  • evaporation from body surfaces + respiratory tract

• ongoing need for water

  • gives the body physical shape

  • participates in most metabolic rxns

  • transports nutrients

  • eliminates waste and excess heat

  • helps maintain proper fluid and ion balance

• MOISTURE (vs dry matter)

  • air dried feed = 10% water

  • fresh green forage = 80% water

what are carbohydrates and why do we need them?

• made of: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

• MAJOR energy source

  • simple carbohydrates: (ex. sugar/glucose ; easy to digest)

    • in cereal grains: corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, sorghum

  • complex carbohydrates: (ex. starch; chain of glucose)\

    • main energy source for swine + poultry

  • dietary fiber: (ex. cellulose and lignin in plant cell walls

    • roughages; alfalfa, orchard grass, bluegrass

    • difficult to digest; require host + microbial interaction

    • main energy source for ruminants and hindgut fermenters

what are lipids and why do we need them?

• fats and oils

• made of carbon, hydrogen > oxygen

  • energy (2.25x the energy value of carbohydrates)

  • essential fatty acids

  • fat-soluble vitamins (A,D, E, and K)

  • structural component of cells and hormones

• easy to digest

• triglyceride + water = glycerol + 3 FA chains

  • free fatty acid (FFA) = Non-Esterified Fatty Acid (NEFA)

What are proteins and what is the difference between essential, semi-essential, and non-essential?

• Chains of amino acids

  • carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, ± iron, phosphorus, sulfur)

• essential amino acids: must be supplied in diet + vary by species

• semi-essential amino acids: slowly produced by the animal from other amino acids

• non-essential amino acids: produced by the animal as long as it has the elements

What is another word for the minerals in feed and what is its purpose?

• elements other than C, H, N, O

• ASH

• Components of bones and teeth and an important part of the body’s enzymes

• macrominerals: required in larger amounts

• Microminerals: required in smaller amounts

when it comes to minerals what is a deficiency?

not enough of a mineral

when it comes to minerals what is a toxicity or poisoning?

too much of a mineral

what are some examples of macrominerals?

• calcium

• phosphorus

• magnesium

• sodium

• chloride

• potassium

• sulfur

what are some examples of microminerals?

• copper

• iron

• selenium

• zinc

• cobalt

• fluorine

• iodine

• manganese

• molybdenum

what types of subminerals are there?

• salt,

• trace mineralized salt

• oyster shells

• bone meal

what are vitamins used for?

needed in very small amounts for specific functions

what are fat soluble vitamins?

• tend to be involved in regulating body function (vision, blood clotting, tissue maintenance and growth; bone development)

  • A ( pigment in the retina; reproductive ability; immunity)

  • D (Sun- skin- liver- kidney = Ca absorption in the intestines)(important for bone growth and repair; lack = rickets)

  • E (antioxident; cell-signaling; neurologic functions; reproduction)'

  • K (blood clotting)

• need to be supplied in the diet for ALL species

  • exceptions: D and K; K for ruminants ONLY- synthesized through microbes

what are water soluble vitamins?

• tend to be used more for body metabolic regulation

  • vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins

  • C (ascorbic acid) - aid teeth/bone formation and infection prevention

• Involved in chemical rxns, improve appetite, groeth and reproduction

  • choline

  • B1(thiamine)

  • B2 (riboflavin)

  • B6 (pyridoxine)

  • biotin

  • niacin

  • B12 (cyanocobalamin)

  • Panthothenic acid

what illness can be attained from a deficiency in vitamin C?

Scurvy

what are the specifications of water soluble vitamins in ruminants?

• microbes supply all the water-soluble vitamins, except for Vit C and Choline

• choline is produced in the liver of ruminants

what are the specifications of water soluble vitamins in horses?

microbes in the cecum produce B vitimins

what is Polioencephalomalacia?

• thiamine deficiency

  • Vitamin B1 acts as a cofactor for several key enzymes involved in glucose metabolism

  • thiamine is especially important for proper brain function as the brain relies on glucose as its major source of energy

what is the source of B1 in adult ruminants?

make B1 from microbes in rumen

what is dry matter?

feed with all the moisture removed

• must convert this to As fed or Air-dry basis to feed

what concludes of ration formulation?

• identify available feed components

• determine the nutrient composition of available feed

  • based on average values

  • based on actual feed analysis

• Calculate the amount of feed to use to meet the animal’s requirements (balance the ration)

  • computer programs

  • by hand - equations or pearson square

  • online calculators & spreadsheets

what are forages/roughages ?

• high in fiber

• >18% crude fiber on DM basis

• Lower TDN (50-65%)

  • fresh: pasture, green chop

  • dried: hay, straw

  • fermented: silage (corn, legume, grass)

what are concentrates?

• low fiber

• <18% crude fiber when dry energy feeds or protein supplies

• highly digestible (80-90%)

  • energy feed: grain & by-products

  • proteins: animal or plant

what are legumes?

nodules on roots contain bacteria able to take N2 from air and transform it into ammonia that converts into ammonium

what are nonlegumes?

• forage/ roughage

  • cannot use N2 from the air

  • typically contain less protein

what are protein supplements?

• >20% proteins

• animal proteins:

  • >47% crude protein

  • more balanced amount of essential amino acids

  • ex. meat/meat scraps, bonemeal, milk, bloodmeal, feathermeal

• vegetable proteins

  • <47% crude protein

  • ex. soybean meal, brewer’s grain peanut oil meal, dried distiller’s grain

what are energy feeds

• grains + by-products

  • ex. corn, sorghum grain, oats, barley, rye, wheat, dried beet pulp, dried whey

what is neutral detergent fiber?

• fairly insoluble material in plant cell walls

• used to predict feed intake

• low NDF is desirable

what is acid detergent fiber?

• least digestible part of plants

• used to predict feed intake

• low ADF is desirable

what includes of the laboratory analysis of feed

chemical, drying, burning, or wet chemistry procedures that determine the major chemical components of feed

what is crude protein?

true protein and non-protein nitrogen

• protein in feed is about 16% nitrogen

• analyzing feed for the % N2 and then multiply by 6.25 to calculate the % crude protein (100%/16% = 6.25)

what is net energy?

indicator of the true energy of a feed

what are the genetics behind animal breeding?

• genetics = study of heredity

• animal → organs → tissues → cells

• nucleus = contains the heredity material (chromosomes that are composed of genes)

what are chromosomes?

• coiled masses of DNA

• every cell in an animals body contains identical chromosomes

what is Ploidy?

the # of copies of each chromosome

what is a diploid?

(2n)

• 2 copies of each chromosome in body cells

what is a haploid?

1n

• 1 copy of each chromosome in germ cells

what kind of cells are reproductive cells?

germ cells or gametes, sperm and eggs

what is a diploid chromosome number?

• total # of chromosomes (in pairs) in the nucleus of each body cell is the same (except for gametes)

what are haploid chromosome numbers?

• total # of chromosomes (unpaired) in the nucleus of each sperm and oocyte is half the # of chromosomes present in all other body cells

what is a karyotype?

visual representation of the chromosomes of a species

what are autosomes?

humans chromosome pairs are numbered 1-22

what is the 23rd pair of chromosomes?

sex chromosome → determine whether an individual is

• genetic female = XX

• genetic male = XY

how does the sex chromosome work in mammals?

sex chromosome in the sperm determines the genetic sex of the offspring

Is there a differential in DNA between XX and XY chromosomes?

3.8% more DNA in the XX chromosome

what is a free martin?

A sterile female born as a twin to a male

• fetal testes produce Mullerian Inhibiting Hormone (MIH) which inhibits development of the female reproductive tract

what causes a fused portion of the placenta in twins?

shared blood supply between two growing embryos

what is a Chimera?

Animal that contains cells derived from 2 different zygotes

• each population of cells keeps its own character = an animal w/ mixed tissues

happens in FREEMARTINS

what is the difference in chromosomes in a normal calf and a freemartin?

• normal = 60 different chromosomes in each cell

• freemartin = 60 chromosomes in her cells PLUS 60 different chromosomes in cells received from brother

what is the segment of DNA on a chromosome?

gene

what is the combination of genes an individual possess?

genotype

what is the physical appearance of an individual determined by its genotype

phenotype

what is the likelihood of a trait to be passed from offspring to parent?

heritability estimates

what is the nonadditive gene effect and what’s an example?

only 1 or a few pairs of genes determine expression of a trait

• ex. horned condition in cattle (polled = no horns)

what is the additive gene effect

multiple genes determine expression of a trait

• ex. milk production, carcass traits, weight gain, etc.

why are animals genetically tested when selecting a breeding stock?

animals are tested for the presence or absence of specific genes that may lead to differences in disease susceptibility or production traits.

what is scrapie testing?

Scrapie testing is a genetic test conducted on sheep to identify the presence of genes associated with resistance to scrapie, a fatal prion disease affecting the nervous system. Neurodegenerative disorder

• transmission: through direct contact with infected animals or contaminated environments. (usually contracted from their dam or soon after birth

• clinical signs: (after 2-5 year incubation) lethargy, unusual hoping gait, fixed stare with head held high, blindness, trembling, convulsions (when handled), death (2wks-6mon)

• TRANSMISSION AND DEVELOPMENT DEPEND ON HOSTS GENOTYPE

What are the specific codons susceptible and resistant to scrapie?

136 - valine (susceptibility) or alanine (resistance)

171 - glutamine (Q) (susceptibility), arginine (R)(resistance), lysine (susceptibility), or histidine (susceptibility)

each sheep inherits two copies of each gene

• AA RR = nearly resistant

• AA QR = rarely susceptible

• AV QR = somewhat susceptible to some strains

• QQ (AAQQ, AVQQ, and VVQQ) = susceptible

what is a codon?

sequence of 3 bases in DNA that code for a specific amino acid

what does the male reproductive system do during breeding (summarized)

1. produce spermatozoa (through spermatogenesis)

2. produce hormones

3. deliver spermatozoa to the female at the appropriate time

what does the female reproductive system do during breeding (summarized)

1. produce eggs (through oogenesis)

2. produce hormones

   1. estrogen

   2. progesterone

   3. inhibin

3. maintain a pregnancy and deliver offspring

what is GnRH

gonadotropin releasing hormone

what is LH

luteinizing hormone

what is FSH

follicle stimulating hormone

what does the male reproductive system consist of?

• testes

• duct system

• accessory sex glands

• urethra

• penis

what do the testes do?

1. produce sperm (through spermatogenesis)

2. produce hormones

Location:

abdomen (DURING FETAL DEVELOPMENT)

• gradually pulled down into the scrotum by the gubernaculum through the inguinal canal

what is the condition called when there are undescended testes?

cryptorchid

what are the functions of the scrotum?

• skin that houses testes

• protector

• thermosensor (nerves)

• Cooler (sweat glands)

what are the testes made of?

1. seminiferous tubules

   1. convoluted tubules where sperm production happens (mitosis)

2. interstitial Cells

   1. outside the seminiferous tubules

   2. produce testosterone

3. sertoli cells

   1. inside seminiferous tubules

   2. produce estrogen

where does the production of spermatozoa happen?

seminiferous tubules

what part of the testes produces testosterone?

interstitial cells

what part of the testes produces estrogen

sertoli cells

what is spermatogenesis?

• production of male sex cells (haploid)

• begins at puberty and continues through life

where is sperm stored

epididymis

what are the Ductus deferens?

duct with think smooth muscle walls

• leaves the epididymis and travel in the spermatic through the inguinal ring

• connects with the urethra

what are the three version of birth control for the male species?

• vasectomy

• castration

• epididymectomy

what are the spermatic cords?

tubular structure extending from the inguinal ring to the testes

what is the urethra (males)?

final outflow tract

• collects spermatozoa from the ductus deferens

• collects secretions from accessory reproductive glands

what are the accessory sex glands (males)?

• glands that contribute secretions to sperm to make semen

• varies by species

• development and maintenance depends on exposure to testosterone

map out the path of sperm

1. testes: seminiferous tubules

2. ducts

3. epididymis

4. ductus deferens

5. urethra

6. outside body

what makes up the female reproductive system

• ovaries

• oviducts

• uterine horns'

• uterine body

• cervix

• vagina

• vestibule

• vulva

what is oogenesis?

creation of female sex cells

give the break down of what happens with the female reproductive system

1. hypothalamus produces GnRH

2. Anterior Pituitary gland produces LH

   1. causes OVULATION - egg releases and caught by oviduct

3. Ovary (filed with oocytes that resume meiosis) produces inhibin and estrogen

   1. estrogen goes to Hypothalamus

   2. inhibin goes to Anterior Pituitary gland

4. hypothalamus make more GnRH and AP makes FSH

what happens during ovulation?

• surge of LH ruptures a mature follicle to release ovum

• ovum (egg) is caught by the oviduct

what produces progesterone in the female reproductive system?

corpus luteum

what occurs post ovulation?

• empty follicle fills with blood

• corpus luteum forms and produces progesterone (pro pregnancy hormone)

what does progesterone do?

• pro-pregnancy hormone

• supresses estrus

• gets uterus “ready” for embryo

• closes cervix

• encourages mammary gland development

what are the “two potential fates” of the Corpus Luteum

1. female is pregnant = CL has an extended lifespan

2. female is not pregnant = uterus releases prostaglandin F2a → kills CL

What are the different estrous cycle intervals?

• polyestrous: continuously cycling

• seasonally polyestrous: cycling continuously throughout certain seasons

• monoestrous: 1 cycle per year