AQA A level geography - POPULATION + ENVIRONMENT

4 key elements in physical environment

climate, soil fertility, geology, water supply

impact of climate on population

- e.g rainfall, wind, sunlight all determine food productivity and the type of farming, which species are selected for cultivation

- adequate rainfall and temp for rearing livestock and growing crops determines population size

- climate may also influence disease incidence which can affect pop e.g malaria

impact of soil fertility on population

- e.g soil structure, texture, pH, organic matter and nutrients

- fertility will influence the agricultural output

- e.g fertile soil areas often have high pop density as they have high agricultural productivity so able to feed and sustain large populations

impact of water supply on population

- needed for human hydration, irrigation of crops, hygiene and sanitation uses

- importance of water can be shown by Egypt pop. density with 95% of its population living within 12 miles of the Nile river

impact of geology on population

- places with high concentration of fossil fuels and other minerals give rise to industrialisation and consequently densely populated areas

4 population parameters and their global patterns

density: avg no of people per km2

- higher density in urban areas and cities, also potentially agricultural areas as many people look for jobs there (esp. in LDEs)

distribution: pattern of where people live

- world has uneven distribution, 90% of earths pop live on 10% of land

numbers: total living in a fixed area

- influenced by disease incidence, food security, water supply, housing conditions, resource availability etc

rate of change: how the pop has increased and decreased over time

- pop is never static, distribution, density and numbers always changing

malnutrition

persons diet doesn't contain right amount of nutrients (too many or too few)

Undernourishment (how many in 2023)

persons food intake is insufficient to meet dietary energy requirements (males require more than females)

- 750+ million undernourished in 2023

food security

all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain healthy and active life

agricultural productivity

The ratio of agricultural outputs to agricultural inputs

changing patterns of food production

increase in proportion of food for non-domestic markets due to commercialisation of agriculture, advances in tech and transport etc = globalisation + Green/gene revolution

much food in LICs still produced and consumed there

more demand for out of season products e.g UK import strawberries from Chile (however people becoming more aware of food miles)

changing patterns of food consumption

richest nations consume most calories per day (avg 2600-3800) but large parts of S. America, central Africa, consume well under recommended calories per day = undernourished

increase of prices and inflation (recessions and cost of living) = less people getting out of poverty as they cannot afford

main types of farming

commercial - produce and sell products = provides livelihood

subsistence - products are consumed by farm workers

intensive - small scale, capital or labour intensive

extensive - large scale

what is TFP and how can it improve productivity

total factor productivity = the ratio of outputs to inputs

high TFP = more outputs gained for effective input use

- imporved by more efficient harvest practices, technologies, selective breeding etc

2 physical factors affecting agricultural productivity

climate

zonal soils

polar climates

- cold long winters, avg temp below 0

- windy, little precip (occurs as snow), permanent ice caps

- food: simple vegetation and seafood

- few plants can survive due to undernourishment and harsh climate

- 3.1 million pop

- north arctic circle in northern hemisphere

how do polar climates affect human activity and numbers

- limited human activity, small no of people in area

- fishing and mineral exploitation rather than land based agriculture

- still manage to fish sustainably e.g Greenland hunt for caribou and seals in winter

- difficult to build infrastructure due to frozen grounds; population has adapted by building houses on stilts

- low agriculture productivity

- global warming is causing some areas of permafrost to melt and temps rise meaning more exposed arable land so potential for land based agriculture in future (at the risk of damaging habitats and species currently living there)

tropical monsoon climate

- West and central Africa, SEA, S. America

- wet seasons in excess of 1000mm of precipitation per month

- dry seasons around 10-20 degrees

how do tropical monsoon climates affect human activity and numbers

- more than 60% of world affected by tropical monsoon climates (mainly due to urbanisation)

- agriculture based around monsoon season; waterlogged fields helpful for rice as they thrive

- flooding creates smooth floodplains = flat land = ideal

- people choose to live in these regions for farming opportunities and better food security but this has resulted in overpopulation

- urbanisation --> overpopulation --> poor living conditions

- people need to adapt/prepare for prolonged dry seasons as crop can be damaged = reduced yield = increased food insecurity

- flood and droughts due to climate change; 2014, monsoon caused 300 deaths in Pakistan and India

- varying rainfall patterns and drier soil reduce agricultural productivity

- lower nutrition quality of produce

importances of soils

foundation to global food production, sustain 95% of food production, host 1/4 of worlds biodiversity, pharmaceutical source and role in carbon cycle

general soil characteristics

mixture of minerals, organic matter, liquid and gas

layers of material = horizons

characterised by whether soil can support rooted plants

5 functions of soil

1. cycling nutrients, C,N,P

2. regulating water (irrigated and rainwater)

3. sustaining plant and animal life

4. filtering and buffering potential pollutants

5. physical stability and support

zonal soil

mature, well-developed soils classified by covering wide geographic regions and are in dynamic equilibrium with climate, vegetation and parent matter

tropical red latosol

- Red/ brown in colour.

- 20-30m deep.

- thick litter layer than is decomposed quickly into humus

- nutrients absorbed quickly = thin fertile layer

- Leaching is a big problem (due to rainfall exceeding evapotranspiration)

- crop growth in cleared forest land is difficult due to short-lived nutrient supply in upper layers

- Five degrees either side of the equator is the equatorial climate belt, where the zonal soil -

- found in tropical rainforest biome (either side of the equator) but is inherently infertile, hence the inadvisability of forest clearance for agricultural use.

- hot, wet humid climate provides ideal conditions for rainforest, shed leaves throughout year = constant nutrient supply = new growth

- however fast nutrient cycle means soil can become exhausted of stored nutrients very quickly

podsol

- found in northern hemisphere in areas of coniferous forest also found in other areas e.g heathland and moors in UK

- very poor nutrient cycle, coniferous evergreens don't take up calcium, magnesium and potassium so these nutrients cannot return to the soil when pine leaves fall = acidic humus

- rarely exceeds 1m deep

- generally infertile, non-productive soils.

- if used for agricultural purposes, soil must be fertilised to ensure nutrient levels are consistent and also ploughed to decrease acidity of topsoil to maintain adequate yields

soil erosion

wearing away of topsoil by wind of water

- 9 million hectares land lost annually

waterlogging of soil

pore spaces in soil occupied by water so insufficient oxygen for plants to respire and grow

salinisation

build up of salts in soil = eventually toxic to plants

structural degradation

deterioration/breakdown of soil arrangement

managing soil erosion

- wind: add more organic matter, reduce ploughing, increase plant cover, plant tree lines/hedgerows = increase stability and compactness of soil = wind force less likely to blow soil

- water: install drains and ditches, reduce water running into fields from roads/tracks, add manure to stabilise topsoil, cover crops, contour ploughing

managing waterlogging

- sustainable irrigation (no water on already oversaturated soil)

- adding sands to clay soils to increase amount of water they can absorb

- raising crop beds with force water downward into soil due to gravity

irrigation water

water with dissolved salts; used to water plants via pipes, sprinklers etc

who and how much land is affected by salinisation globally?

10-20%

hot, semi-arid areas with poor drainage systems using lots of irrigation water (=lots of salt accumulates)

--> high temps = evaporation leaving salt on ground

--> fertilisers containing salt left in soils

managing salinisation

- drip irrigation

- flush soil with water --> moves problem elsewhere

- fertilisers with lower salt content

causes of structural deterioration

compaction e.g machinery or livestock

removal of vegetation that holds soil structure

--> can result in flooding, decline in fertility, soil erosion etc

managing structural deterioration

- reduce compaction - move livestock regularly

- change soil structure e.g adding sand

why may reaping/gathering crops affect soil structure?

removal of vegetation/crop means that the plants roots are removed from the soil which is what helps to give soil its structure and stability, without it, the soil is at risk to erosion, loss of fertility and general degradation

4 factors determining food security

1. availability

2. accessibility

3. use

4. stability

how much more food is needed to be produced to feed everyone be 2050?

50% increase in food production needed

strategies to ensure food security

improve post-harvest practices

increase agricultural productivity

encourage communities to eat less meat and control/slow pop growth

how has technology improved agricultural productivity and increased food supply

green rev: higher yields using higher-yield varieties, agro-chemicals, mechanisation and irrigation

- global rice yields have tripled since 1960s

- hydroponics; growing crops in mineral nutrient solution (don't require soil)

- genetic modification e,g resistant traits - pest, disease, drought

- sustainable farming practices introduced by NGO and governments to improve longevity of food supply (focus in LDEs)

Thanet Earth

East Kent, UK: glasshouses growing produce using hydroponics, ideal conditions all year

- 400 million tomatoes, 33 million cucumbers and 20 million peppers each year.

- sustainable agricultural system and yield

- very expensive (only possible in HICs)

- Thanet Farm now one of the top producers in UK market, competing with those in Holland and Spain

crop spraying in Punjab

helped India double their farm yields in 50 years BUT agrochemicals used for spraying, contaminated soil and food

--> 34000 deaths from cancer between 2008-2013 which claim to be related to the increased use of pesticides on crop

'miracle' rice in Philippines

IR8 variety experienced 6-fold increases in yield in just the 1st harvest = made by combining two existing rice variety to gain most desirable traits

--> however, the rice was still vulnerable to pests and disease so required further development

how has increasing access to food ensured food security

- fairtrade rules allow poorer countries to import and export food at fairer prices = due to globalisation

- improved infrastructure allow transport to markets efficient and cheaper

- social protection from NGOs and gov. e.g food grants, vouchers, free school meals for those most disadvantaged (however, countries may require political stability to enforce this, usually those wealthier)

how can improving post-harvest practices ensure food security

- drying crops correctly reduces fungal growth

- more training to ensure harvest is at optimum time

- improved storage to protect crops from insects, rodents, rain, temp fluctuations when transporting

health

A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease

moridity

used to describe the incidence of illness and disease in society

DALYs

measure of morbidity in society, no. of years of healthy life lost by being in poor health or disabled

mortality

death; measured by death rate, infant mortality rate etc

well-being

the state of being comfortable, healthy, or happy.

geographical patterns of health

unevenly distributed, mortality is higher in LICs and MICs

--> non-communicable disease are responsible for about 65% of deaths globally

--> deaths from infectious diseases are declining (suggesting world as a whole is advancing through ETM)

Economic and social developments that can improve health

Economic: tech to improve food productivity, transport infrastructure, investment in drainage and sewer systems, trading resources in exchange for foods, medicines etc (globalisation)

social: improve sanitation, better education on disease, vaccines and antibiotics, training doctors, aid programmes

Why will fertility rates start to decrease after an area becomes more developed?

- Healthcare developments will reduce infant mortality rates so parents start to have fewer children.

- contraception accessibility and availability

Epidemiological transition

As a place becomes more sociopath-economically developed, over time infectious diseases e.g influenza, malaria will be replaced by NCDs e.g heart disease, cancer, dementia as the more common causes of death

Explain how a country may progress through 4 stages of ETM

1. Age of infection and famine: LE 20-40, poor hygiene and sanitation, unreliable food supply, deaths from communicable diseases

2. Age of reducing pandemics: LE 30-50, improved sanitation and diet, reduced no. of infections but still deaths, increased non-comm diseases e.g heart attack and stroke

3. Age of degenerative and man-made disease: LE 50-60, lifestyles associated with poor diet, inactive, addiction, high BP, obesity, diabetes, smoking = ageing

4. Age of delayed degenerative disease: LE 70+, low risk behaviours in population, health promotion and new treatments, heart disease and cancers and main mortality cases but treatment is available to delay them/extend life

4 Environmental variables which can link to the incidence of disease

- climate

- water quality

- topography

- air quality

Climate and relationship with disease incidence

Increased vector borne disease in hotter, wetter climates - e.g malaria, mosquitoes can thrive and breed quickly in these conditions = more chance of infection

extreme weather events may result in water-borne disease - e.g cholera, typhoid, diarrhoea diseases - seen after floods, tropical storms, wildfires etc

(2010 cholera outbreak in Haiti after earthquake BUT was from international aid bring over disease)

Topography and relationship with incidence of disease

Low lying areas: floodplains or valleys or coastal areas = more prone to water borne disease due to poor drainage and stagnant water

floodplains: constantly flooded and oversaturated so host lots of water borne disease, also mosquitos breed in stagnant water

sunlighht and exposure:

- too much heightens risk of skin cancer due to UV rays e.g Australia, highest skin cancer rates due to high UV rays, ozone depletion and overexposure

- too little sunlight may cause vitamin deficiencies e.g vit D, may lead to back pain, muscle weakness

- SAD correlates to geographical location, those in areas with low levels of daylight hours in winter = higher rates of SAD

Air quality and relationship with incidence of disease

91% of pop live in dress of unsatisfactory air quality

- pollution: anthropogenic activities e.g fossils fuels, combustion, industry facilities, fuels in homes - can cause illness especially in urban areas where conc of pollutants is high and particularly is asthmatics

- household pollution: burning of polluting fuels in homes, smoke, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide - those in LICs more at risk due to poor living standards, unventilated homes

air pollution can cause severe effects e.g heart attacks, cancer, respiratory issues, lung disease

Water quality and relationship with incidence of disease

Water borne diseases: contaminate water supply e.g cholera, typhoid can be carried in water then infested and cause illness

- poor water quality increases chances of diorhheal disease (2nd leading cause of death in children under 5)

- LICs people using same water to bathe, drink, clean dishes etc mean water becomes very bad quality very quickly

Estimated cases of malaria yearly; who is most at risk?

263 million cases worldwide, 600000 deaths

sub-Saharan African countries, young children and pregnant women most at risk

child dies every minute from malaria

Explain why malaria only occurs in tropical and subtropical areas

Mosquitos breed in stagnant water and have high transmission after rainfall season. Temp needs to be between 16 and 32 degrees for the parasite to develop in the mosquito. Central Africa experiences all year long transmission but coastal areas less likely due to higher altitudes and reduced rainfall

poor healthcare increase malaria risk

Accessibility and availability: further distance from nearest health clinic/hospital so people unable to seek treatment and prevention methods

Income affecting risk of malaria

Higher income means more money able to spend on repellant and prevention

Age impact of malaria risk

Children under 5 most vulnerable to extreme consequences however over focus on this age has led to an increase in cases in 5-14 years

Malaria - impacts on health and well being

high fever, flu like symptoms, headache, anaemia

Absences from school/education

however those who have lived for years in areas with malaria may have developed partial immunity to new infectious diseases (could be seen as a positive)

How can malaria cases impact a country's economic well-being

- costs to individuals and family

- costs to government

- malaria accounts for 49% of hospital expenditures in some areas

- direct costs = $12billion/year

What are the 3 interventions suggest by WHO to help prevent malaria

1. Quick and effective treatment

2. Use of insecticidal nets by people at risk

3. Indoor residual spraying with insecticide to control mosquito vectors

Leading cause of death

CHD

66000 deaths annually in UK

Physical environment vs lifestyle choices - which one effects chances of CHD more

No clear links between CHD and physical environment (potentially climate - those in cold damp winters potentially more at risk).

Lifestyle choices within one's physical environment are more important Rick factors for CHD

Socio-economic factors which may increase CHD risk

- social deprivation (e.g those in Tower hamlets are 3x more likely to due prematurely of CHD than those in Kensington and Chelsea)

- tobacco and alcohol use

- diet and nutrition, cholesterol

- infrequent exercise

- diabetes

- high blood pressure

- obesity

- ethnicity and family history

Explain why RAPID urbanisation can be a factor in increasing CHD risk

Insubstantial housing conditions, poor access to healthcare, healthy food, safe green spaces

crowded living environments spread disease

city dwellers exposed to marketing of Greg's and unhealthy food

urban environment may discourage people from physical activity

individuals turn to processed and prepared convenience foods

children in cities particularly susceptible to second hand smoke due to high no. of Sokol ears in urban areas

Angina, heart failure

Angina = Low level yet constant chest pain

- increased pain under stress e.g during excerise

- can be relieved with tablets or sprays

heart failure = no/less blood being pumped around the body

- can be fatal

- surgery can be performed t but it is risky and expensive = only available to HICs

Strategies to reduce risk of CHD cases

- Dietitians promote benefits of healthy diet

- community based interventions, health education

- policies and legislation e.g banning tobaccos use in public areas such as planes, trains, shops, etc, also health warnings on packaging, advertising restrictions

—> smoking bans implanted in 2007 in UK

How are the WHO using schools to reduce CHD risk?

World Heart Day: 29th Sep

medical activities e.g BP testing

physical activity to encourage healthy lifestyle

scientific conferences

promote healthy eating

International agency is

organisation with global authority that is generally funded by contributors from national governments

NGO

non-governmental organization; operates independently of any government, typically one whose purpose is to address social or political issues (funded mainly by donors)

What do the WHO do?

Responsible for international classification of disease

advising on prevention of disease

working with UN agencies, NGOs

advising on technical issues regarding health

Why has the WHO been criticised?

Being over-bureaucratic (complicated, long delays etc) and lacking practical front-line response application to health issues

What was the WHO praised for in 1970s

Eradication of small-pox disease

List 3 other international agencies

1. UNICEF

2. UN AID

3. World bank

Positives of NGOs

Can be organised at local - global scale

Promoted as alternative to healthcare providers to the state esp. in developing countries

Promote local involvement

More flexible and free to respond to situations

how have MSF helped to provide medical aid?

Treated malnutrition with ready-to-eat therapeutic food which helped reduce famines

Worked with trained midwives to help set up programmes to identify/prevent birth complications which can reduce mortality (infant)

Medical assistance and field research

What % of MSF funds come from donors?

89%

how is ebola transmitted and where?

Ebola is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads from human to human

- introduced to humans through close contact with the blood/body fluids

Ebola first cases came from rural villages in central Africa, 2014-2016 outbreak spread to major urban areas

- fatality rate is 50%

Symptoms of Ebola and how it can be prevented

Symptoms: flu like symptoms with bloody diarrhea, severe vomiting, and internal bleeding

prevention: washing hands, avoiding touching bodily fluids of patients, not touching dead Ebola bodies, getting vaccinated

WHO response to 2014-2016 Ebola outbreak

- supporting community engagement

- contact tracing

- vaccination

- case management

Phase 1: rapid up-scale response

= increase no of Ebola treatment centres and patient beds, rapidly hiring and training teams in safe and dignified burials

Phase 2: increase capacities

= increase capacity for case finding, contact tracing, community engagement

= along with vaccine trials, these efforts are credited with bringing outbreak under control and decreasing case numbers and deaths

BUT VERY SLOW IN RESPONSE TO INITIAL OUTBREAK - could've been smaller if they had acted quicker?

NGO response to Ebola outbreak 2014

- medical assistance and supply

- community engagement and education

- implemented WaSH activities in schools and communities

- burial teams

- collaboration with other IGOs

e.g International Rescue Committee (IRC): working with local governments to send team of infection-control specialists, environmental health experts to support existing health facilities = this strengthened prevention and control by helping facilities identify Ebola cases

also contact tracing, monitoring symptoms of close relatives, vulnerable groups e.g babies and pregnant monitored

e.g ActionAid: long term connections/relationship with communities in Africa meant they could respond quickly and effectively, supported over 500000 people across 2014 and 2016.

Natural change

Difference in crude birth rate and crude death rate

- higher birth rates = natural increase and vice versa

Net migration change

The difference between the total number or average rate of immigrants and emigrants in an area over a given period of time.

- More immigrants than emigrants will give a positive net migration and more emigrants than immigrants gives negative net migration.

How may an increase in net migration lead to natural change?

Many immigrants are of reproductive age so therefore are more likely to have children, and increase in birth rate/children born = natural increase (also left with a smaller proportion of elderly population so a seemingly reduced death rate)

Distinguish between birth rate and fertility rate

Birth rate = number of live babies born per 1000 women per year

Fertility rate = average number of children born per woman in an area

—> more direct and accurate than birth rate

Net replacement rate

Number of children each women needs to have to maintain the current population levels in an area (no net growth)

- in developed countries, this is around 2.1

- in less developed countries, average is 2.3-3.3 due to higher mortality rates

What can infant mortality rate imply about a population?

Gives and indication on level of healthcare available in population, particularly maternal and post-natal care

Indication on the wealth of the country, higher income countries tend to be able to afford better/more healthcare, medicines, good diet etc

(Infant mortality = no of children dying before their 1st birthday)

Suggest why the norm of having lots of children to only having 1 or 2 has happened in the UK

- more affluent parents tend to have fewer children to give special attention/best upbringing possible

- having more children is obviously much more expensive than just simply using the readily available and accessible contraception.

Suggest how religion may influence population change

- some religions prohibit use of contraception and abortions as methods of population control; this means if these women get pregnant, the population is bound to increase

- Muslims show highest fertility rates and fastest growth, can be linked to this or the norms of their religion being to have a large family?

CULTURAL FACTORS: Gender affecting population change

- some may have preferences for male children particularly is rural areas where men will be expected to work/do labour

- female infanticide rates spiked in China after the One Child Policy was introduced as men were viewed to be gender with economic potential, earning power and generally more superior to females

= can lead to unequal population structures, more males than females, therefore impacting future generations, less women population = potentially less children born

CULTURAL FACTORS: marriage

- traditions such as polygamy (having more then one wife) esp in Middle East and Asia seen as symbol of power and wealth

- can lead to more births as many females married and of reproductive age = increase pop

CULTURAL FACTORS: Policy

- India's 'one family, two children' government imposed limit influences many families on what is right in society

- this limit means that any family who has more than 2 children, will not receive government subsidy for the third, fourth, fifth child etc = impacts parents views on whether having a larger family is worth it and also can mean steady growth in population structure.