Key Concepts in Developmental Psychology and Gender Studies

Sex

Biological and physiological characteristics (e.g., chromosomes, hormones, reproductive organs). Typically categorized as male, female, or intersex.

Gender

Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male, female, or another gender. It is a cultural and societal concept.

Gender Roles

Societal expectations about how individuals of a specific gender should behave, dress, or act (e.g., 'men are strong,' 'women are nurturing').

Gender Identity

A person's deeply felt sense of their own gender, which may or may not align with their biological sex (e.g., transgender, non-binary, cisgender).

Trust vs. Mistrust

Develop trust in caregivers (0-1 year).

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

Gain independence (e.g., toileting, feeding) (1-3 years).

Initiative vs. Guilt

Explore and take initiative in play and activities (3-6 years).

Industry vs. Inferiority

Develop competence in school and social skills (6-12 years).

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Form a coherent sense of self (12-18 years).

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Build intimate relationships (18-40 years).

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Contribute to society (e.g., parenting, mentoring) (40-65 years).

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Reflect on life with a sense of fulfillment (65+ years).

Phonemes

Smallest units of sound (e.g., /b/, /a/, /t/).

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning (e.g., 'un-' in 'undo').

Lexemes

Words or vocabulary (e.g., 'cat,' 'run').

Syntax

Rules for arranging words into sentences (e.g., subject-verb-object order).

Context

Meaning derived from the surrounding text or situation.

Cooing

Early vowel-like sounds (2-4 months).

Babbling

Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds (6-10 months, e.g., 'ba-ba-ba').

Critical Period Hypothesis

Suggests there is a biologically determined window (early childhood) during which language acquisition is most effective.

Evidence of Critical Period

Cases like Genie (isolated child) and feral children show limited language acquisition after this period.

Sensorimotor Stage

Develop object permanence (understanding objects exist even when unseen) (0-2 years).

Preoperational Stage

Egocentrism (inability to see others' perspectives) and animism (believing inanimate objects have feelings) (2-7 years).

Concrete Operational Stage

Master conservation (understanding quantity remains the same despite changes in shape) (7-11 years).

Formal Operational Stage

Hypothetical thinking and abstract reasoning, including adolescent egocentrism (e.g., personal fable—believing one is unique and invincible) (12+ years).

Secure Attachment

Child feels safe, explores, and seeks comfort from caregiver.

Avoidant Attachment

Child avoids caregiver and shows little distress when separated.

Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment

Child is clingy but resists comfort when reunited.

Disorganized Attachment

Child shows inconsistent behaviors, often due to trauma.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Tasks a child can perform with guidance but not alone.

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided by a more knowledgeable person.

Social Learning Theory

Learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Demonstrated children imitate aggressive behaviors they observe.

Longitudinal Studies

Follow the same individuals over time (strength: tracks development; drawback: time-consuming).

Cross-Sectional Studies

Compare different age groups at one time (strength: quick; drawback: cohort effects).

Case Studies

In-depth analysis of an individual or small group (strength: detailed; drawback: not generalizable).

Authoritative Parenting

High warmth, high control (best outcomes for children).

Authoritarian Parenting

Low warmth, high control.

Permissive Parenting

High warmth, low control.

Uninvolved Parenting

Low warmth, low control.

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed Interval

Reinforcement after a set time period.

Variable Interval

Reinforcement after unpredictable time intervals.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a conditioned stimulus (CS) to produce a conditioned response (CR). For example, if a bell (CS) causes salivation (CR), a light paired with the bell can also cause salivation.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a reward to increase behavior (e.g., giving candy for good behavior).

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior (e.g., turning off an alarm to stop noise).

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior (e.g., scolding).

Negative Punishment

Removing something pleasant to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away toys).

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Natural response to UCS (e.g., salivation).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Neutral stimulus paired with UCS (e.g., bell).

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

Extinction

CR weakens when CS is presented without UCS.

Spontaneous Recovery

CR reappears after a pause.

Discrimination

Responding only to a specific CS.

Generalization

Responding to similar stimuli as the CS.

Ecological Systems Theory

Explains development as influenced by multiple environmental systems: Microsystem: Immediate environment (e.g., family, school). Mesosystem: Interactions between microsystems. Exosystem: External environments indirectly affecting the individual (e.g., parent's workplace). Macrosystem: Cultural values and societal norms. Chronosystem: Changes over time (e.g., historical events).

Identity Diffusion

No exploration or commitment.

Foreclosure

Commitment without exploration (e.g., adopting parents' values).

Moratorium

Exploration without commitment.

Identity Achievement

Exploration and commitment to an identity.

ACEs (Adverse Childhood Experiences)

Traumatic events in childhood (e.g., abuse, neglect, household dysfunction). Linked to long-term physical and mental health issues.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Directly related to reproduction (e.g., ovaries, testes).

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Develop during puberty but not directly involved in reproduction (e.g., breasts, facial hair).

Aging

Decline in physical and cognitive abilities (e.g., memory loss, slower reflexes).

Dementia

A group of disorders characterized by memory loss, confusion, and impaired reasoning. Caused by brain damage (e.g., Alzheimer's disease).

Imprinting

Animals form strong attachments during a critical period (e.g., ducklings following their mother).

Nature

Genetic and biological influences on development.

Nurture

Environmental and social influences.