Long-Term Memory Processes and Everyday Memory Insights

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Storage system for information over extended periods.

Encoding

Transferring information into long-term memory.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information from long-term memory.

Consolidation

Stabilization of memories over time.

Levels of Processing Theory

Depth of processing affects memory retention.

Shallow Processing

Focus on physical features of information.

Deep Processing

Focus on meaning and relationships of information.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information with existing knowledge.

Visualization

Creating mental images to enhance memory recall.

Self-Referential Encoding

Improved memory by relating information to oneself.

Retrieval Practice

Self-testing enhances long-term retention of information.

Spaced Practice

Studying in short sessions improves retention.

Spacing Effect

Better memory with distributed study sessions.

Interleaved Practice

Alternating practice between different skills enhances retention.

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that aid in accessing stored memories.

Bower & Winzenz Study

Imagery improves recall significantly after delays.

Leshikar et al. Study

Self-relevant cues boost memory performance.

Mueller & Oppenheimer Study

Handwriting notes enhances recall compared to typing.

Cepeda et al. Study

Optimal spacing intervals vary by retention delay.

Hippocampal Activation

Stronger activation for spaced learning observed in fMRI.

Cramming

Massed practice leads to poorer long-term retention.

Self-Testing

More effective than restudying for retention.

Interleaving

Mixing different topics improves learning efficiency.

Deep Semantic Processing

Better recall through deeper understanding of information.

Physical Features Processing

Surface-level analysis of information.

Attention to Meaning

Focusing on significance enhances memory encoding.

Brain Connectivity

Increased connectivity linked to effective learning.

Retention Delay

Time interval before recalling learned information.

Self-generated cues

Cues created by oneself, enhancing memory recall.

Music Evoked Autobiographical Memory (MEAM)

Memory triggered by music, enhancing recall of experiences.

The Proust Effect

Memory recall triggered by taste and smell.

Context-Dependent Learning

Better memory when retrieval context matches encoding context.

State-Dependent Learning

Improved memory when internal state matches encoding state.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

Best memory when encoding and retrieval processes match.

Memory Consolidation

Transforming fragile memories into permanent, stable states.

Standard Model of Memory

Hippocampus-cortex interaction diminishes over time.

Reactivation in the hippocampus

Strengthens cortical connections during memory retrieval.

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of pre-injury memories, often graded by recency.

Multiple Trace Model

Hippocampus remains active for remote memories.

Sleep spindles

Brain activity during non-REM sleep linked to memory.

Targeted Memory Reactivation (TMR)

Using cues during sleep to enhance memory consolidation.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory for personal experiences and significant life events.

Reminiscence Bump

Enhanced memory for events from adolescence and early adulthood.

Self-image hypothesis

Identity formation period enhances memory encoding.

Cognitive hypothesis

Rapid change followed by stability improves memory encoding.

Cultural life-script hypothesis

Culturally shared expectations enhance memorability of events.

Misleading post-event information

Post-event details can distort original memory recall.

Eyewitness Testimony

Highly fallible; influenced by questioning and suggestion.

Weapons focus

Attention drawn to weapons can impair memory accuracy.

Ronald Cotton case

Illustrates dangers of relying solely on eyewitness testimony.

Emotional arousal

Enhances memory consolidation via medial temporal lobe.

LaBar & Phelps (1998)

Studied emotional arousal's effect on memory consolidation.

fMRI data

Shows hippocampal activation for recent and remote memories.

Sleep stages

Different stages contribute to memory consolidation processes.

Hippocampal activation

Involved in both recent and remote autobiographical memories.

Weapons focus

Attention narrows to weapon, impairing memory details.

Leading questions

Questions that can alter memory recall accuracy.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid memories of shocking emotional events.

Narrative-rehearsal hypothesis

Rehearsal enhances vividness, not accuracy of memories.

Recovered Memories

Retrieval of previously forgotten traumatic memories.

Schemas

Organized knowledge influencing encoding and retrieval.

Scripts

Schemas about typical action sequences in events.

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)

Exceptional ability to recall personal past details.

Supermemorizers

Individuals using strategies for extraordinary memory abilities.

Conceptual Knowledge

Organizes knowledge into concepts for understanding.

Concept

Mental representation for cognitive functions and categorization.

Categorization

Placing items into groups based on shared features.

Definitional Approach

Categorization based on meeting specific definitions.

Family Resemblance

Members resemble each other, allowing category variations.

Prototype Theory

Categorization by comparing to an average category member.

Prototypicality

Continuum of how typical a category member is.

Typicality effect

Highly prototypical members processed more rapidly.

Exemplar Theory

Concepts represented by multiple specific category examples.

Family resemblance effect

Faster categorization for items similar to exemplars.

Hierarchical Organization

Categories organized into superordinate, basic, and subordinate levels.

Basic-level categories

Most commonly used, balancing informativeness and distinctiveness.

Top-down Processing

Existing knowledge influences category structuring and hierarchy.

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another.

Sentence verification tasks

Assessing how quickly a statement is judged true.

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex

Brain region associated with prototype processing.

Lateral parietal cortex

Brain region associated with exemplar processing.

Inferior frontal gyrus

Brain region involved in categorization processes.

Face Categorization

Extracting category details unconsciously during processing.

Semantic Network Approach

Concepts organized as a network with relational links.

Cognitive Economy

Properties stored at highest relevant level to minimize redundancy.

Sentence Verification Time

Time predicted by distance between concepts in the network.

Spreading Activation

Activation spreads from one concept to related concepts.

Typicality Effect

Slower verification for atypical category members.

Connectionist Model

Knowledge represented by distributed patterns across neuron-like units.

Connection Weights

Adjustments made based on input and error signals.

Sensory-Functional Hypothesis

Knowledge relies on sensory or functional properties.

Multiple-Factor Approach

Semantic knowledge organized by various distinct features.

Semantic Category Approach

Specific brain areas process certain information categories.

Embodied Approach

Knowledge linked to sensory and motor experiences.

Shallow Encoding

Surface-level processing with minimal semantic understanding.

Deep Encoding

In-depth processing enhancing memory retention.

Self-Reference Effect

Better memory for information related to oneself.

Generation Effect

Improved memory from generating information rather than reading.

Testing Effects

Retrieval practice enhances long-term retention.

Encoding-Specificity

Memory retrieval influenced by the context of encoding.