Units 0-5 Psychology notecards

Critical thinking

Analyzing and evaluating information to make reasoned judgments.

Hindsight bias

Belief that you 'knew it all along' after an event happens.

Peer reviewers

Experts who evaluate research before publication.

Theory

A broad explanation based on evidence and observations.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the outcome of research.

Falsifiable

Can be proven false through evidence.

Operational definition

How a concept is specifically measured in a study.

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm results.

Case study

In-depth study of one person or small group.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in natural settings without interference.

Survey

A method of collecting self-reported data from people.

Social desirability bias

Tendency to answer in ways seen as favorable by others.

Self-report bias

Inaccuracies in reporting one's own behavior or feelings.

Sampling bias

A sample that does not accurately represent the population.

Random sample

Every person has an equal chance of being selected.

Population

The entire group a researcher wants to study.

Correlation

A relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

A number (from -1 to +1) showing strength and direction of a correlation.

Variable

Any factor that can change or be changed.

Scatterplot

A graph showing the relationship between two variables.

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists.

Regression toward the mean

Unusual scores tend to return to average on retesting.

Experiment

A research method to test cause and effect.

Experimental group

Group that receives the treatment.

Control group

Group that does not receive the treatment.

Random assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance.

Single-blind procedure

Participants don’t know if they are receiving the treatment.

Double-blind procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know who is receiving the treatment.

Placebo effect

Changes caused by expectations, not the treatment itself.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated.

Confounding variable

Extra variable that could affect the outcome.

Experimenter bias

When a researcher's expectations influence results.

Dependent variable

The outcome measured in a study.

Validity

The degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

Quantitative research

Focuses on numbers and statistical analysis.

Qualitative research

Focuses on descriptions and subjective data.

Informed consent

Participants agree to a study with full knowledge of risks.

Debriefing

Explaining the purpose and details of a study after participation.

Descriptive statistics

Numbers that summarize data (e.g., average, range).

Histogram

A bar graph showing frequency of data.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score.

Mean

The average score.

Median

The middle score when numbers are ordered.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores below a particular score.

Skewed distribution

A distribution that is not symmetrical.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Standard deviation

Measure of how spread out scores are.

Normal curve

Bell-shaped curve showing normal distribution of data.

Inferential statistics

Analyzing data to make generalizations about a population.

Meta-analysis

Combining results of multiple studies.

Statistical significance

Likelihood that results are not due to chance.

Effect size

The strength of the relationship between variables.

Heredity / "Nature"

Refers to the genetic inheritance and biological factors that influence development.

Environmental Factors / "Nurture"

The external conditions, influences, and experiences that shape behavior and development.

Evolutionary Perspective

Focuses on how natural selection of traits promotes the survival of genes and influences behaviors.

Twin Studies

Research examining the similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to assess genetic versus environmental influences.

Family Studies

Studies that look at hereditary patterns and traits among family members to determine the role of genetics in behavior.

Adoption Studies

Research that compares adopted children to their biological and adoptive parents to study the effects of genetics and environment.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and transmitting information.

Spinal Cord

A bundle of nerve fibers that connects the brain to the rest of the body, facilitating reflexes and communication.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The part of the nervous system that connects the CNS to limbs and organs.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Controls involuntary bodily functions like heartbeat, digestion, and breathing.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the PNS that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A division of the ANS that calms the body and conserves energy.

Sympathetic Nervous System

A division of the ANS that activates the 'fight or flight' response in stressful situations.

Neurons

Nerve cells responsible for transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body.

Glial Cells

Supportive cells in the nervous system that assist neurons by providing nutrients and insulation.

Reflex Arc

The neural pathway involved in a reflex action, which allows for quick responses to stimuli without brain involvement.

Sensory Neurons (Afferent)

Neurons that carry sensory information from the body to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons (Efferent)

Neurons that transmit signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons and help coordinate responses.

All or Nothing Principle

A neuron either fully fires or does not fire at all; there is no partial firing.

Depolarization

The process where a neuron's membrane potential becomes less negative, initiating an action potential.

Refractory Period

A short period after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again until it resets.

Resting Potential

The electrical charge difference across the membrane of a resting neuron.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are absorbed back into the sending neuron after transmitting a signal.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse or action potential.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease in which the immune system attacks the protective covering of nerves, leading to communication problems between the brain and the body.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disorder that weakens muscles by attacking the connections between nerves and muscles.

Action Potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down a neuron, transmitting information.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross synapses to transmit signals between neurons.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with reward, pleasure, and motor control.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, and sleep.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.

Glutamate

The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, important for learning and memory.

GABA

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, helping to reduce anxiety and promote calmness.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and promote feelings of euphoria.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain signals.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction and learning/memory.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands that travel through the bloodstream to regulate body functions.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

A hormone that triggers the body's fight or flight response, increasing heart rate and energy availability.

Leptin

A hormone that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates hunger and increases food intake.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Oxytocin

A hormone that promotes bonding, social connections, and emotional responses.

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances that alter mood, behavior, perception, and brain function by affecting neurotransmitter activity.

Agonists

Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters and activate receptors.

Antagonists

Drugs that block neurotransmitters and inhibit receptor activity.