Exploration, American Colonies, and Early Republic

Vocabulary flashcards covering key figures, events, and concepts from early global contact, colonial America, European wars, and the American Revolution and Constitutional Era.

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portuguese royal who sponsored exploration down the African coast, advancing navigation technology and laying groundwork for Portugal’s maritime empire.

Bartolomeu Dias

A Portuguese explorer who in 1488 became the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa (the Cape of Good Hope).

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer who in 1498 reached India by sea, sailing around Africa, linking Europe directly to the Indian spice trade.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer, sponsored by Spain in 1492, who sailed westward to the Caribbean, triggering sustained European contact, colonization, and the Columbian Exchange.

Amerigo Vespucci

Italian navigator who explored the New World and argued that the lands discovered by Columbus were not Asia but a distinct continent, from which 'America' is derived.

Ferdinand Magellan

Explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe (1519–1522), proving the world’s oceans were interconnected and Earth is round.

Imperialism

A policy or practice of extending a country’s power through territorial acquisition or by establishing economic and political dominance over other areas, common during the Age of Exploration.

Virginia Company of London

A joint-stock company chartered by King James I to establish settlements in North America (Virginia), funding early English colonization with aims for profit via resource extraction and trade.

Commodity Trap

A pattern in colonial economies where colonies produce primarily raw commodities and import finished goods, limiting economic diversification and leaving them vulnerable to price swings.

Act of Toleration (1649 Maryland Toleration Act)

An early law in Maryland that allowed freedom of worship for all Christians, particularly protecting Catholics in a majority-Protestant English colonial world.

Carolinas

Originally one English colony, later split into North and South Carolina due to geographic, economic, and settlement differences, established for rewarding supporters and plantation agriculture.

Georgia (Colony)

Established partly as a 'charity colony' for debtors and the poor, and as a buffer zone between Spanish Florida and English colonies, initially with limits on slavery and land size.

Mayflower Compact

A 1620 agreement made by Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower to self-govern by majority rule among the settlers, representing an early form of social contract in British North America.

Dutch West India Company

A trading company chartered to manage Dutch colonial interests in the Americas and Africa, including trade, colonization, and control of colonies like New Netherland.

East India Companies (English and Dutch)

Chartered trading companies that gained quasi-governmental powers (to wage war, make treaties, administer territories) in Asia, central to European colonial systems in India and Southeast Asia.

Quakers (Religious Society of Friends)

A religious group emphasizing pacifism, equality, tolerance, and inner light doctrine, prominent in early American colonization.

Philadelphia

Founded by Quaker William Penn as the principal city of Pennsylvania, envisioned as a 'holy experiment' for religious freedom and good governance.

War of Spanish Succession

A European conflict (1700–1713) over who would succeed Charles II of Spain, risking an expansion of French power if a Bourbon took the Spanish throne.

Treaty of Utrecht (1713)

The treaty that ended the War of Spanish Succession, resulting in Britain gaining territories like Newfoundland, Hudson Bay region, and Gibraltar, enhancing its Atlantic colonial presence.

War of Austrian Succession (King George’s War)

A European conflict (1740–1748) over Hapsburg succession and territorial claims, which spilled over into North America as King George’s War where colonists and European powers clashed.

French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War)

A global conflict (1754–1763 in North America) between Britain/colonies and France/Native American allies; British victory led to France losing most North American territories, but also incurred war debt for Britain.

Massacre at Fort William Henry

An event in 1757 during the French and Indian War where Native American allies attacked retreating British forces and colonists after the fort's surrender, inflaming colonial perceptions of frontier danger.

William Pitt

British statesman who, as Secretary of State then Prime Minister during the French and Indian War, reorganized the British war effort, committed more resources, and mobilized colonists, turning the tide.

British / Colonial Relationship (Pre-1760s)

Colonists viewed themselves as British subjects with rights, but after the French and Indian War, Britain asserted direct authority, imposing taxes and regulations, treating colonies as subordinate parts of the empire.

Stamp Act (1765)

A direct tax imposed by Britain on printed materials in the colonies, which colonists viewed as taxation without representation, leading to protests and boycotts.

Sons of Liberty

A radical political organization in the colonies that used public demonstrations, intimidation, and extralegal tactics to oppose British policies, especially the Stamp Act.

Boston Massacre

A 1770 event where British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists, killing several; it was used by colonial propagandists like Paul Revere to inflame anti-British sentiment.

Minutemen

Colonial militias prepared to fight at a minute’s notice, among the first to engage the British during the early stages of the Revolutionary War.

Battles of Lexington and Concord (1775)

The first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War, where colonial militias resisted British troops marching to seize colonial arms.

Olive Branch Petition

A 1775 petition by the Second Continental Congress to King George III, declaring American loyalty and asking for redress of grievances; the king refused to receive it, pushing toward war.

Declaration of Independence (1776)

The document adopted on July 4, 1776, in which the colonies declared themselves independent states, listing grievances and asserting Enlightenment ideals of natural rights and consent of the governed.

Battle of Trenton (1776)

A morale-boosting surprise attack by George Washington’s troops crossing the Delaware River on Christmas night, defeating Hessian forces.

Battle of Yorktown (1781)

The decisive final major battle of the Revolutionary War, where American and French forces besieged British troops under Cornwallis, whose surrender effectively ended major combat.

Strict Construction

An interpretation of the Constitution that limits the federal government to only those powers explicitly granted to it.

Loose Interpretation

A broader interpretation of the Constitution, allowing the federal government to use implied powers (not explicitly enumerated but inferred) to fulfill its duties.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the 1787 Constitution's ratification without a Bill of Rights, who feared centralized power and preferred stronger state powers.

Federalists

Supporters of the new Constitution who favored a stronger national government, arguing that checks and balances prevent tyranny and that a stronger central government was necessary for order.

Thomas Jefferson (economic views)

Generally opposed large federal debt, favored an agrarian society, preferred minimal taxation, and believed states should retain strong powers over the federal government.

Alexander Hamilton (economic views)

Believed the U.S. should assume and pay off state and national debts to solidify credit and national unity, supporting tariffs, excise taxes, and a strong central government.

Excise Tax

A tax on specific goods produced or sold within the country, used by Hamilton (e.g., on whiskey) as a revenue source.

Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

An uprising by farmers in western Pennsylvania in response to Hamilton’s excise tax on whiskey, suppressed by Washington with a militia, establishing federal authority to enforce laws.

Thomas Jefferson (on National Bank)

Opposed a national bank, arguing it was unconstitutional (strict construction) and would favor wealthy elites.

Alexander Hamilton (on National Bank)

Supported a national bank, arguing it was a necessary and proper institution (implied powers) to manage currency, debt, and credit.

Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794)

A battle between U.S. forces and a Native American confederacy in the Northwest Territory; the U.S. victory led to the Treaty of Greenville and opened more land to settlers.

Impressment

The British Royal Navy practice of capturing American sailors and forcing them into service, a major grievance for the U.S. in the early 1800s.

Jay’s Treaty (1795)

A treaty with Britain negotiated by John Jay, which resolved some outstanding issues post-Revolution and got the British to withdraw from forts, but was unpopular for not ending impressment or fully compensating America.

XYZ Affair (1797–98)

A diplomatic incident during John Adams’s presidency where French agents (coded X, Y, Z) demanded bribes from U.S. negotiators before formal talks, outraging Americans and leading to a quasi-war with France.