Diversity of form and function

uiowa

Plasmids

A circular DNA molecule distinct from the chromosome(s); that is, an extrachromosomal element; found in many bacteria. May replicate independently of the chromosome

Operons

In prokaryotes, a genetic unit of transcription, typically consisting of several structural genes that are transcribed together; the operon contains at least two control regions: the promoter and the operator

gram +

violet dye.

have dense cell wall consisting of peptidoglycan THICK layer

gram -

pink.

layer which is surrounded by a second membrane that is chemically different from that of the cell membrane

THIN layer

prokaryotes rely on diffusion -

flagella

Quorum sensing

The use of chemical communication signals to trigger density-linked activities such as biofilm formation in prokaryotes

triggers biofilm formation

lateral gene transfer

transfer of individual genes, organelles or fragments of genomes from one species to another

3 types of lateral transfer

conjugation

transformation

transduction

conjugation

DNA from donor cell is transferred through a pilus into recipient cell

living donor cell

new sets of traits

transformation

DNA released into the environment by dead cells is picked up by a recipients cell

Dead Donor

transduction

dna is transferred from a donor to a cell via virus

viral forms in donor , then released then infected

obligate anaerobes

have to live in O2 free environments. oxygen is poisonous .. most likely becuase of earths early atmosphere

facultative anaerobes

can use either anaerobic or aerobic respiration

cyanobacteria perform

photosynthesis

phototautographs

use light to feed themselves

responsible for converting earths atmosphere to aerobic

photoheterotrophs

harvest energy from light but rely on suagrs made by other organisms

engulf them

chemoheterotrophs

feed on other organisms

decomposers

break down dead bodies

return carbon to soil

nitrogen fixers

convert N2 from atmosphere to NH3

O that is usable by the nitrogen fixers themselves as well as by other organism

Nitrifying bacteria

NH3 —> NO2 —> NO3

available to plants for amino acid, nucleic acid synthesis

dentrifying

convert organic nitrogen to N2

endotoxins

molecules are released in process of getting rid from our body. bacterial cell bursts that release molecules that are harmful. Fever,,

exotoxins

produced from living pathogens in body. highly poisonous and fatal

viruses

composed of protien-coated DNA or RNA, encoding a small number of protiens

not cellular

not alive

positive sense RNA virus

comprises of viral mRNA which can be translated into proteins

genome is TEMPLATE for translation

positive sense RNA virus examples

zika, hepatitis C, polio, Rhinovirus

Negative sense RNA virus

Genome is NOT a template- but a compliment

genetic info is encoded in strands of RNA that must be copied before they can be translated into the proteins needed to build new viruses

cannot be directly translated into proteins by the hosts cells ribosomes- must be converted first

negative sense rna virus examples

mumps, ebola, rabies

RNA retrovirus

RNA as genetic material and use reverse transcription. Integrate genetic material into host cells genomes

rna gets converted to dna and the dna copy of the viral genome gets integrated into hosts chromosomes. Once infected it cannot be undone.

RNA retrovirus example

HIV

DNA virus examples

small pox, herpes, bacteriophage

bacteriophage

virus that infects bacteria

involved in lateral transfer

Coronavirus coV2

positive strand rna virus

viral particles composed of 4 kinds of protein encoding rna genome

large genome encodes other products that make infection more deadly

virus increasing pathway

1. spike proteins bind to receptor

2. after binding, particle sheds outer proteins

3. viral proteins are processed and group on the rough ER. then go to Golgi

4. release of mature viral particles via vesicles that fuse with cell membrane

features of eukaryotes

organized nucleus

linear chromosomes

membrane bound organelles

why do viruses shed outer protiens

allows direct translation of RNA and production of more copies of viral RNA to be copied and translated

eukaryotic organelles

use respiration and are covered by a membrane

mitochondria and chloroplasts

digestive vacoules

vesicles

move material out of cell and into cell

movement relies on cytoskeleton

cytoskeleton

made up of proteins that give it shape and allows vesicles to move and deliver materials

energy metabolism

cells convert nutrients into energy and other essential molecules

organelles include - chloroplasts and mitochondria

rotifers

only eukaryotes that dont have a sexual life cycle

meiosis

specialized cell division

gametes have ½ of the normal chromosomes

fertalization

fusion of gametes

sex increases genetic diversity

introduces variation among genomes. offspring have more opportunity to be successful

unicellular eukaryote w/ prominent haploid phase

haploid cell undergoes mitosis

eneters fusion or mitosis

unicellular eukaryote w prominent diploid phase

diploid undergoes mitosis

either undergoes meiosis or mitosis

mitosis in animals

occurs between fertilization and production of gametes

spore

product of meiosis in plants

protists

type of eukaryote that is usually single celled

not plant, not animal, everything else

move by flagella, cilia or psuedopods

super kingdoms

plants, animals and Fungi, protists

opisthokonts

include animals and fungi

all have flagella at the postier (tail)

choanoflagellates

type of opisthokont

small marine organism

can be colonial and demonstrate a first step toward multicellularity

Fungi

type of opisthokont

characterized by cell walls made of chitin

don’t undergo photosynthesis

how fungi eat

external digestive system. secrete digestive enzymes, break down food and absorbed. Play an important role in decomposition

fungi play an important role in

decomposition

they feed on dead and livingorganic matter, recycling nutrients.

fungal infections in animals are difficult to treat becuase

fungicides are toxic to animal cells

Mushrooms

fungi. opisthokont

have an underground network of hyphae and an above ground body that makes spores by meisosis

hyphae

thread-like structures that make up the body of fungi,essential for the growth, reproduction, and nutrient absorption of fungi.

lichens

fungus + green algae

Lichens are fascinating organisms that result from a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic partner, usually an alga or cyanobacterium

amboebozoans

use pseudopods for motility

aquatic

eats via phagocytosis

psuedopods move by

constantly moving their cytoplasm

physarum

type of amoebozoan

a plasmodial slime mold

disperse then aggregate to form fruiting bodies where spores form

move by cytoplasmic streaming

dictyostelium

type of amoebozoan

a cellular slime mold

rhizarians

also characterized by psuedopods but they are LONG

aquatic

have an outside shell

foraminiferans

type of rhizarian

external shells of calcium carbonate

source of limestone

radiolarians

type of rhizarians

glassy exoskeleton

include some of the largest unicellular eukaryotes

can have photosynthetic organisms that live in it

Archaeplastids

land plants (multicellular)

red algae, green algae, land plants

stramenopiles

have unequal flagella

both multiand unicellular organisms

diatoms

type of single celled stramenopiles

aquatic

photosynthetic storage oils instead of starch

brown algae

photosynethtic type of stramenopiles

which superkingdoms feature organisms that have pseudopods

Amoebozoans and Rhizarians

Which superkingdom has no members with chloroplasts

Opisthokonts

Which of the following pairs are in the same superkingdom

animals and fungi

when building phylogenies to describe relatedness among organisms, the most reliable characters to compare are

whole genome sequences

monophyletic

organism that includes a common ancestor and all of its decedents. Animals are monophyletic

sponges

lack tissues

inner surface composed of choanocytes

flagella beat to draw water in instead of for movement

choanocyte

specialized cell found in sponges that aid in its feeding and water circulation processes

diploblastic animals

2 body layers

one single opening that serves as its mouth and anus

aquatic, body supported by water

typically radially symmetric

alveolates

protists

characterized by having sacs under cell membrane

3 types

3 types of alveolates

paramecium, dinoflagellates and plasmodium

paramecium

type of alveolate

body is covered with cilia

dinoflagalletes

type of alveolate

red tides - produce toxins

plasmodium/apicomplexans

type of alveolate

parasite causing malaria. nonfunctional chloroplasts

excavates

unicellular, often lacking mitochondria named for their surface grooves

deuterostomes

classified by embryonic development

blastopore developes into anus

bilateral symmetry and triploblastic

vertabrates

protostomes

classified on embryonic development

blasteopore develops into mouth

bilateral symmetry and triploblastic

arthropods are an example

3 major animal clades

lophotrochozoans, ecdysozoans, deuterostomes

lophotrochozoan

one of the three major animal clades

common larval form

feeding aparatus

ecdysozoans

one of 3 major animal clades

Classified by - shed exoskeleton to grow

arthropods are examples

deuterostomes

one of 3 major animal clades

vertebrates, bilateral symmetrical and mouth forms second

arthropods

an ecdysozoan

most successful animals due to- body supported by exoskeleton, segmented body plan- metrameric

crustaceans

arthopods

in ocean and dry land

lobster

hexapods

arthopods

jointed body plan

terrestrial

myriapods

arthropods

millipede

lophotrochozoans structure

have a lophophore ( feeding structure) and a trochophore ( free living larval stage)

echinoderm

a deuterostome

most are radially symetrical adults, but are balateral as larva so they are still deuterostome

chordates

a duesterstome

dorsal, hollow nerve cord

post anal tail, notochord

vertebrate innovations

internal skeleton

jointed fins

terestial limbs

amniotic eggs

mammals

4 chambers to the heart

mammary glands

prototherians

lay eggs

type of mammal