child development chapter 1 santrock

Cohort

A group of people born at a similar time in history who share similar experiences.

Cohort Effect

Differences in development caused by time of birth or era, not actual age.

Psychoanalytic Theory

A theory emphasizing unconscious processes and early childhood experiences.

Freud’s Theory

A psychoanalytic theory where development is driven by unconscious sexual and aggressive urges.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

A theory with eight stages, each involving a crisis that must be resolved for healthy development.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first stage (infancy); infants learn if the world is trustworthy.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's second stage (1–3 years); toddlers develop independence or feel shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson's third stage (preschool); children assert power or feel guilt for their actions.

Strengths of Psychoanalytic Theory

Focus on early experiences, family relationships, unconscious mind, and personality development.

Criticisms of Psychoanalytic Theory

Hard to test, relies on biased memories, too focused on sex and the unconscious, culturally biased.

Cognitive Theory

Theories that focus on conscious thoughts and how people understand the world.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

A stage theory where children actively build understanding through organization and adaptation.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Emphasizes social interaction and cultural tools in cognitive development.

Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky’s idea of the range of tasks a child can do with help.

Information

Processing Theory

Behaviorism

Theory that psychology should study only observable behavior learned through the environment.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Learning through association of a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Behavior is learned through reinforcement and punishment.

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura)

Emphasizes learning through observation, as well as the role of thoughts and environment.

Ethological Theory

Focuses on biological bases of behavior and critical/sensitive periods.

Imprinting

Rapid learning in a critical period, leading to attachment (Lorenz’s geese experiment).

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

Human infants form strong emotional bonds in the first year that affect life

Sensitive Period

A limited time during development when a child is most affected by certain experiences.

Ecological Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s theory that development is influenced by different levels of environmental systems.

Microsystem

The individual’s immediate environment (family, school, peers).

Mesosystem

Interactions between microsystems (e.g., home and school relationships).

Exosystem

Settings that influence the child indirectly (e.g., parent’s work).

Macrosystem

The broader cultural context in which the child lives.

Chronosystem

The pattern of events over time and historical context (e.g., effects of divorce or war).

Scientific Observation

Systematic watching and recording of behaviors to collect data.

Laboratory Observation

Observing behavior in a controlled environment where many variables can be controlled.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in real

Case Study

An in

Correlational Research

Research that examines the strength and direction of relationships between variables.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical number from

"Correlation ≠ Causation"

Correlation shows association, not cause

Experimental Research

Research that manipulates variables to find causal relationships.

Independent Variable

The variable that is changed or manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The outcome that is measured in response to changes in the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants by chance to reduce bias in experimental results.

Cross

Sectional Study

Longitudinal Study

Studying the same individuals over a long period of time.

Attrition

Loss of participants over time in a longitudinal study.

Ethics in Research

Moral principles guiding research to protect participants.

Informed Consent

Participants must be told what participation involves and may withdraw at any time.

Confidentiality

Participants’ data must be kept private and anonymous when possible.

Debriefing

Informing participants about the study’s purpose after it ends.

Deception

Withholding information about a study’s true purpose; allowed only if it does not harm participants and is revealed afterward.

APA Ethics Code

A set of guidelines by the American Psychological Association to ensure safe and ethical research.