Hasset

Who are Kim Wallen and Janice Hassett-Vick?

Kim Wallen is a professor of psychology and behavioral neuroendocrinology at Emory University and the Yerkes National Primate Research Center. Janice Hassett-Vick is a researcher who joined Wallen's lab for a summer internship.

What was the focus of Wallen and Hassett's research on monkeys?

They investigated whether monkeys would show a preference for sex-stereotyped toys when given a choice between male and female-stereotyped toys.

What surprising result did Wallen and Hassett find in their study on monkeys?

The monkeys' behavior paralleled findings in children regarding toy preferences, suggesting that these preferences may reflect underlying sex differences rather than solely socialization.

What does the study by Wallen and Hassett suggest about toy preferences?

Toy preferences may reflect underlying sex differences in preferences for specific activities rather than being primarily the result of socialized preferences.

How does Bergen (2015) define play?

Bergen emphasizes that play is always voluntary and that individuals choose what to play with, how, and with whom.

What is the significance of play according to psychologists?

Play allows individuals to practice skills required in adulthood and may be adaptive, helping with survival.

How is biological sex determined in mammals?

Biological sex is typically determined by sex chromosomes, with XX for females and XY for males.

What role do sex hormones play in brain development?

Sex hormones like testosterone and estrogen affect neural development, including neurogenesis and synaptogenesis, and are associated with differences in cognitive processes.

What behavioral trend is observed in young children regarding play with toys?

Psychological research shows that girls are more likely to play with trucks than boys are with dolls, indicating robust behavioral sex differences.

What is the view of Hassett et al. regarding the origin of behavioral sex differences?

Hassett et al. explore the idea that these differences may be hormonal in origin.

What do many psychologists believe about gender roles?

Many psychologists believe that gender roles are primarily learned through socialization rather than being biologically determined.

How do children learn about gender roles?

Children learn about gender and societal expectations through interactions with parents and peers, which guide their behavior and toy preferences.

What example illustrates how boys and girls are socialized into gender roles?

A boy who plays with trucks may be praised, while a girl playing similarly may be discouraged and offered traditionally feminine toys.

What does the observation of boys playing less with feminine toys suggest?

It suggests that boys may be more actively discouraged from engaging in opposite-sex behavior compared to girls.

What is the definition of gender in humans?

Gender refers to an individual's personal sense of their own masculinity and/or femininity.

What is the significance of play across species?

All animals, including humans, engage in play, which is crucial for practicing skills necessary for survival.

What does the concept of play highlight about animal behavior?

Play is a voluntary activity that allows individuals to express themselves and develop necessary skills.

What is a key challenge in defining play?

The concept of play is hard to define due to the many different types of play seen at various developmental levels.

What did Seashore (1913) define play as?

Seashore defined play as 'pleasure gained in self-expression', though this definition may not apply well to non-human animals.

What does the research suggest about the relationship between play and survival?

Research suggests that play may be adaptive, helping individuals develop skills that enhance their chances of survival.

How do societal expectations influence children's toy preferences?

Societal expectations lead children to conform to gender stereotypes, affecting their choices in toys and play.

What is the implication of the findings from Wallen and Hassett's study for future research?

The study illustrates that exploring unconventional ideas can lead to significant findings, encouraging researchers to pursue important questions regardless of perceived challenges.

What is the role of neurogenesis and synaptogenesis in sex differences?

Neurogenesis and synaptogenesis, influenced by sex hormones, contribute to the development of cognitive differences between males and females.

What do Hassett et al. believe influences children's toy preferences?

They believe that toy preferences are influenced by cognitive abilities related to differing sex hormone levels, rather than socialization.

What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)?

CAH is an inherited condition where a foetus is exposed to higher than usual levels of prenatal androgens.

How do girls with CAH differ in toy preferences compared to their unaffected sisters?

Girls with CAH show a preference for stereotypically male toys compared to their unaffected sisters.

What did Pasterski et al. (2005) find regarding parents' encouragement of toy preferences in girls with CAH?

Parents encouraged daughters with CAH to play with stereotypically female toys more than their unaffected sisters, but the CAH girls still preferred male toys.

What is the significance of studying monkeys in relation to toy preferences?

Monkeys are not socialized to play with specific types of toys, allowing researchers to observe biological factors without social influences.

What did Goy et al. (1988) find about female vervet monkeys exposed to prenatal androgens?

They participated in more rough-and-tumble play than untreated controls, but their interest in infants remained unaffected.

What was discovered about male vervet monkeys and their toy preferences?

Male vervet monkeys played more with stereotypically male human toys than female monkeys, but spent a similar amount of time with both male and female toys.

What strong preference did female vervet monkeys show in toy interactions?

Female vervet monkeys showed a strong preference for female toys over male toys.

What were the two main aims of the study by Hassett et al.?

1. To test if sex differences in children's toy preferences result from biological factors. 2. To investigate if male and female rhesus monkeys have similar toy preferences to human infants.

What research methodology did Hassett et al. use in their study?

They conducted an experiment observing monkeys in a controlled environment to find a causal relationship between sex and toy preferences.

What type of design was used in the study?

The study used an independent measures design, comparing two groups of monkeys: males and females.

What was the independent variable in the study?

The independent variable was the sex of the monkeys, determined by the appearance of their external sex organs.

What was the dependent variable in the study?

The dependent variable was the interaction of monkeys with plush toys versus wheeled toys.

How many trials were completed in the study?

Seven trials were completed, each with a different pair of toys.

What did children tend to explain their toy preferences in terms of?

Children explained their toy preferences in terms of 'what can be done with' a specific toy rather than its gender appropriateness.

Who conducted the research that supports the hormonal influence on toy preferences?

Hassett et al. conducted the research supporting the idea that toy preferences are shaped by hormones.

What is the evolutionary significance of studying primates in relation to human behavior?

Evolutionary continuity between monkeys and humans suggests that findings from primates can help determine the role of biological factors in human behavior.

What is the role of socialization in the context of toy preferences according to Hassett et al.?

Hassett et al. argue that toy preferences are shaped more by hormones than by socialization.

What did Eisenberg et al. (1982) contribute to the understanding of children's toy preferences?

They noted that children explain their toy preferences based on the activities the toys promote, rather than societal gender norms.

What is the main focus of the nature versus nurture debate in the context of this study?

The debate focuses on whether toy preferences are biologically determined by hormones or socially constructed through upbringing.

What type of environment were the monkeys observed in during the study?

The monkeys were observed in a natural environment, specifically their normal enclosure.

What method was used to collect data in the study?

Data was collected through observation and analysis of video recordings of the monkeys.

What is the significance of the findings from the study on toy preferences?

The findings suggest that biological factors, such as hormonal influences, play a significant role in shaping toy preferences in both monkeys and humans.

What was the sample size of the troop of monkeys in the study?

135 monkeys at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center.

Why were certain monkeys excluded from the study?

Fourteen monkeys had previously participated in research on prenatal hormones, and thirty-nine babies (≤3 months) were not included due to difficulty in determining their sex.

How many monkeys were included in the analysis after exclusions?

34 monkeys (23 females and 11 males) interacted with the toys on more than five occasions.

What was the duration of each observation during the study?

Each observation lasted 25 minutes.

How were the toys positioned for the observations?

Toys were placed ten metres apart and counterbalanced, with wheeled toys on the right in half of the trials and plush toys on the left in the other half.

What types of toys were used in the study?

Six wheeled toys (wagon, truck, car, construction vehicle, shopping cart, dump truck) and seven plush toys (Winnie-the-Pooh, Raggedy-Ann, Scooby-Doo, and four soft toy animals).

What was the purpose of counterbalancing the toy positions?

To rule out the possibility that monkeys preferred a certain area of the enclosure rather than the properties of the toys.

How did observers record the interactions between monkeys and toys?

Observers used a video camera and a behavioural checklist, recording data on palm pilots.

What behaviours were included in the observers' checklist?

Extended touching, holding, sitting on, dragging, carrying, manipulating, briefly touching, sniffing, mouthing, destroying, jumping away from, and throwing the toys.

What was the main finding regarding male monkeys' toy preferences?

Male monkeys showed a significant preference for wheeled toys (mean = 9.77) compared to plush toys (mean = 2.06).

What percentage of male monkeys preferred wheeled toys?

73 percent of male monkeys preferred wheeled toys.

Did age or rank affect the toy preferences of the monkeys?

No, the preferences did not appear to be affected by age or rank.

What was the method used to calculate average frequencies and durations of behaviours?

By adding up the totals and dividing by the number of trials each monkey participated in.

What was the outcome for most monkeys in terms of interaction with the toys?

Most monkeys did not interact with the toys at all, and those that did often only interacted for a few seconds.

What technology was used by observers to record data?

An app called Handobs on palm pilots.

What were the characteristics of the wheeled toys used in the study?

Wheeled toys varied in size from 16 to 46 cm.

What were the characteristics of the plush toys used in the study?

Plush toys varied in size from 14 to 73 cm.

What was the significance of the grooming behaviour in determining social rank?

The monkey doing the grooming is always subordinate to the monkey being groomed.

How many males and females were excluded from the analysis due to insufficient interactions?

3 males and 14 females were excluded.

What was the primary location for the observations in the study?

The outdoor area of the monkey enclosure at the research center.

What was the purpose of using a behavioural checklist during the study?

To categorize and code every interaction between the monkeys and the toys.

What was the significance of the study conducted by Hassett et al.?

It explored monkey toy preferences based on social rank and age.

What was the main conclusion regarding female monkeys' interaction with plush toys?

Females played more with plush toys compared to males.

What were the mean frequencies of interaction with plush toys for male and female monkeys?

Male: 2.06, Female: 7.97.

What were the mean durations of interaction with plush toys for male and female monkeys?

Male: 0.53 minutes, Female: 1.49 minutes.

What were the mean frequencies of interaction with wheeled toys for male and female monkeys?

Male: 9.77, Female: 6.96.

What were the mean durations of interaction with wheeled toys for male and female monkeys?

Male: 4.76 minutes, Female: 1.27 minutes.

Did female monkeys show a significant preference for plush or wheeled toys?

No, the difference was not significant.

What percentage of female monkeys preferred plush toys?

30 percent.

What percentage of female monkeys preferred wheeled toys?

39 percent.

How did social hierarchy affect female monkeys' toy preferences?

Females with no preference ranked significantly lower than those who preferred plush toys.

What was the significant finding regarding male monkeys' play duration with wheeled toys?

Males played significantly longer with wheeled toys than with plush toys.

What does the large standard deviation in male monkeys' wheeled toy play suggest?

It suggests that some males played considerably longer with wheeled toys than others.

What was the overall finding regarding female monkeys' interaction time with plush and wheeled toys?

There was no significant difference in time spent interacting with either type of toy.

What correlation was found between social rank and toy interaction frequency?

Higher-ranking monkeys interacted more frequently with both types of toys.

How did social rank affect female monkeys' interaction with plush toys?

Higher rank correlated with more time spent interacting with plush toys.

Did social rank affect female monkeys' interaction with wheeled toys?

No, the same correlation was not found for wheeled toys.

What conclusion did Hassett et al. draw about sex-typed toy preferences in humans?

They may result from biological sex differences, similar to those observed in rhesus monkeys.

What ethical consideration was upheld in Hassett et al.'s study?

Ethical guidelines for working with primates were upheld.

What type of toys were presented to human infants in the study compared to monkeys?

Traditionally masculine toys (e.g., helicopters, blocks) and feminine toys (e.g., dolls, kitchen supplies).

What was the mean duration of interaction with plush toys for male monkeys?

0.53 minutes.

What was the mean duration of interaction with wheeled toys for female monkeys?

1.27 minutes.

How did the frequency of interaction with wheeled toys compare between male and female monkeys?

There was no significant difference in frequency of wheeled toy play between males and females.

What did the researchers conclude about the influence of social environment on toy preferences?

Human toy preferences reflect hormonally influenced behavioral and cognitive biases interacting with learning experiences.

What was the mean duration of interaction with plush toys for female monkeys?

1.49 minutes.

What was the mean frequency of interaction with wheeled toys for male monkeys?

9.77.

What does the study suggest about the nature of toy preferences in monkeys and humans?

They reflect similar biological influences despite differences in socialization.

What guidelines did the researchers follow for the care and use of laboratory animals?

The researchers followed the National Institutes of Health's Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.

Which committee regulates research at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center?

The Emory University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

Describe the housing conditions of the monkeys in the study.

The monkeys were housed in their usual social groups in a 25-metre square outdoor enclosure with a temperature-controlled indoor area, constant access to water, and were fed monkey chow twice a day along with fresh fruit and vegetables.

What ethical considerations were noted regarding the monkeys' living conditions?

The procedure does not present any particular ethical issues as the monkeys lived in captivity and were familiar with the keepers, meaning they experienced no more stress than usual.

What was a strength of the behavioral checklist used in the study?

The checklist was well-operationalised, providing clear descriptions of behaviors, which improved the reliability of observations.

What unexpected event occurred during one of the trials, and how did it affect the study?

One of the monkeys ripped apart a plush toy, causing the trial to be terminated seven minutes early, which compromised the reliability of the observations.

How many observational trials were conducted in the study?

Seven separate 25-minute trials were conducted.