The Founding and the Constitution

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from The Founding and the Constitution lecture notes.

Five sectors of colonial society

The major groups with important interests during the American Revolution: New England merchants, Southern planters, Royalists, the middling stratum (shopkeepers, artisans, laborers), and small farmers.

Sugar Act (1764)

British tax on sugar, molasses, and other commodities aimed at raising revenue from the colonies.

Stamp Act (1765)

Tax requiring printed materials to carry a government-stamped seal, affecting printers and colonists and fueling protests.

Boston Tea Party

1773 protest where colonists, disguised as Mohawk Indians, dumped tea from British ships into Boston Harbor, leading to a British naval blockade of Boston.

Tea Act

British law granting the East India Company a monopoly on tea imports, provoking colonial resistance.

Samuel Adams

Colonial leader who organized protest against British taxation, notably in the Boston Tea Party.

Declaration of Independence (1776)

A philosophical and political statement declaring colonies’ independence from Britain, articulating unalienable rights and justifications for rebellion.

Second Continental Congress

Deliberative body that managed the colonies’ wartime affairs and drafted the Declaration of Independence.

Thomas Jefferson

Virginia delegate who wrote the Declaration of Independence and a key advocate of independence.

Benjamin Franklin

Pennsylvania delegate and elder statesman who helped draft the Declaration and influence diplomatic efforts.

Roger Sherman

Connecticut delegate and drafter of the Declaration; member of the drafting committee.

John Adams

Massachusetts delegate and advocate for independence; later a key contributor to early U.S. governance.

Robert Livingston

New York delegate involved in the drafting of Revolutionary-era documents.

Articles of Confederation

The first written constitution of the United States (1777–1789); created a weak central government with states retaining sovereignty.

Annapolis Convention (1786)

A meeting called to discuss revising the Articles of Confederation; delegates from five states attended and proposed a stronger federal convention in Philadelphia.

Shays’s Rebellion

Armed uprising (1786–87) by debt-ridden farmers highlighting weaknesses of the Articles and prompting calls for a stronger national government.

Constitutional Convention (Philadelphia, 1787)

Convention that produced the new framework for the U.S. Constitution, balancing economic interests, political theory, and protection of liberty.

Virginia Plan

Plan advocating representation based on state population or financial contributions; favored by larger states.

New Jersey Plan

Plan proposing equal representation for all states in a unicameral legislature; favored by smaller states.

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

Agreement creating a bicameral legislature: House representation by population and Senate equal representation for all states.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Constitutional agreement counting enslaved people as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation.

Separation of Powers

Division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent the concentration of power.

Checks and Balances

System ensuring each branch can limit the others’ powers to maintain political stability and prevent tyranny.

Electoral College

Indirect system for electing the president in which states' electoral votes are allocated to the candidate who wins the state’s popular vote.

Federalism

Division of powers between national and state governments to balance centralized authority with regional autonomy.

Supremacy Clause

Constitutional clause stipulating that national law takes precedence over state laws when in conflict.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution, securing individual liberties and limiting governmental power.

Federalists

Advocates of a stronger national government; leaders included Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and George Washington; advocates of the Constitution and the Federalist Papers.

Antifederalists

Advocates of strong state governments and concerns about centralized power; leaders included Patrick Henry, George Mason, Elbridge Gerry, and George Clinton.

Federalist Papers

Essays by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay promoting ratification of the Constitution and explaining federalist principles.

Amendment process (Methods)

Ways to amend the Constitution: proposals by two-thirds in Congress or by a national convention; ratification by three-fourths of states (state legislatures or conventions); route 2 has never been used except for the 21st Amendment.

First Amendment

Protections for freedom of religion (establishment and free exercise), speech, press, assembly, and petition.

Second Amendment

Right to keep and bear arms and related security provisions.

Fourth Amendment

Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures; warrants require probable cause.

Sixth Amendment

Rights of the accused: speedy and public trial, impartial jury, notice of charges, confrontation of witnesses, and assistance of counsel.

Eighth Amendment

Protection against excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel or unusual punishment.

Thirteenth Amendment

Abolition of slavery and prohibition of forced servitude.

Fourteenth Amendment

Citizenship rights, due process, and equal protection; prohibits states from denying rights of national citizens.

Fifteenth Amendment

Prohibits voting restrictions based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Nineteenth Amendment

Extension of the franchise to women (women’s suffrage).

Twenty-Sixth Amendment

Lowered the voting age to 18 in national elections.

Twenty-First Amendment

Repealed Prohibition; the only amendment ratified using the national convention route (Method 2) as noted.

Twenty-Second Amendment

Limited presidents to two terms in office.

Twenty-Third Amendment

Gave residents of Washington, D.C., the right to vote for President and Vice President.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment

Abolished poll taxes in federal elections.

Twenty-Fifth Amendment

Addresses presidential succession and disability procedures.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

Gives Congress the power to make laws necessary and proper to carry out its expressed powers.

Judicial Review

Power of courts to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional.

Second Founding (Constitutional Shift)

The 1787 Philadelphia Convention and the resulting Constitution, marking a foundational shift from the Articles to a new framework of government.