Neur research midterm

What is research?

A systematic investigation to determine facts.

List the 10 steps of The Research Process

1. Develop a research idea.

2. Formulate a hypothesis and prediction.

3. Determine how to define and measure variables.

4. Identify subjects for the study.

5. Select a research strategy.

6. Select a research design.

7. Conduct the study.

8. Evaluate data.

9. Report results.

10. Refine research idea

Name the five non-scientific methods of acquiring knowledge.

Tenacity, Intuition, Authority, Rationalism, Empiricism.

What is tenacity as a method of knowing?

Accepting information because it’s always been believed true (habit, superstition, familiarity).

Why do people rely on tenacity

The brain is wired to look for patterns, infer meaning from random events, and accept familiar ideas without question

What is intuition as a method of knowing?

Accepting information based on a hunch, instinct, or feeling. It can be partly based on subtle subconscious cues

Strength and weakness of intuition?

Can spark novel research ideas when no prior info exists; but must be tested scientifically.

What is authority as a method of knowing?

Accepting information without detailed vetting or questioning because it comes from an expert or trusted source

what does authority stem from?

complete trust in the authority figure (e.g., parents, religious figures, doctors) and it is often the quickest and easiest way to obtain answers (e.g., ChatGPT)

Problem with authority as a knowledge source?

Experts can be biased, wrong, or overgeneralized.

What is rationalism?

Accepting info based on logical reasoning. It is valuable if the premises are absolutely true

what is the logical conclusion from those 2 premisies using rationalism:

• Premise 1: All children love eating chocolate.

• Premise 2: Melissa is 9 years old.

Melissa loves to eat chocolate

what method of knowing do scientists use to form researcdh hypotheses

rationalism but it must be tested by the scientific method

What is the problems with Rationalism as a method of acquiring knowledge?

It assumes that all premise arguments are true. Any inaccuracies in the premises will inevitably lead to false conclusions

What is empiricism?

Accepting information based on direct observation or personal experience. based on the collection of data

Problem with empiricism?

Observations can be misinterpreted or lack operational definitions

what is an operational definition

specifies how a variable is measured so that other researchers can observe it in the same way. without it, oservations can be subjective (Children are not as smart as adults)

Are non-scientific methods of knowing obsolete?

No, they are not obsolete. They may be used in the scientific process if in conjunction with the scientific method

How do non-scientific methods fit into the scientific process?

They can be useful, but only reliable when combined with the scientific method.

Explain the Scientific Method

It is a systematic approach to finding answers, that starts with a set of observations then produces a general question/answer technique.

It may combine elements from non-scientific methods (e.g., empirical, rational, authority for research ideas; rational for predictions; empirical for data collection).

• Leads to better-quality answers and higher confidence in validity.

• Good science is reproducible, and data reproduction is necessary and important

What are the steps of the scientific method?

1. Observation / Research idea

2. Hypothesis / Prediction

3. Systematic plan to collect data

4. Evaluate data

5. support/refute/refine hypothesis

6. New observation

where do research ideas usually vome from

Research ideas often come from previous research, but can also originate from personal observations, others' observations (informal sources), or practical problems

what makes a good reseacrh idea

should be interesting, novel, fundable, and publishable

what is the requirement to formulationg a research idea

Must have comprehensive knowledge of what is known to figure out what is not known

what is applied research

Research directly aimed at solving problems. Aims to provide answers to practical problems

what is basic research

Research that aims to answer theoretical questions. Goal is to gather knowledge for the sake of gathering knowledge

What is a benefit of basic research

can give rise to applied research by providing underlying components for greater understanding of disease

what is an hypothsis

A statement describing the relationship between variables, usually a generalization (induction)

define variables

Conditions that may change or have different values for different individuals

what are characteristics of a hypothesis

must be:

1. Logical: Based on knowledge from literature.

2. Testable: Variables, events, subjects can be observed and defined.

3. Directional: Predicts the direction of the relationship.

4. Specific: Prediction is focused.

5. Refutable: There is an opportunity for results to contradict the hypothesis

is this a good or bad hypothesis: Nicotine affects cholesterol

bad - not directional or specific

what is a prediction

Predicts a small set of possible outcomes based on observations or from the hypothesis - Uses deductive reasoning (a top-down approach from theory to guide ideas)

what are some requirementsfor variables

1. must be measured by carefully-controlled and well-defined methods of observation

2. should be specific and unambiguous (observable and measurable)

what is validity

You are measuring what you claim to measure - Crucial for accurate findings

what is accuracy

A property of your instrument - Involves calibration and precision

“How much error is present?”

what is reliability

Measurements are consistent and produce nearly identical results when used repeatedly-Relates to replicability

what are the different types of variables

• Independent Variable: Manipulated.

• Dependent Variable: Responding/Measured.

• Control Variables: Held constant.

• Confounding Variables: Not held constant (ideally none)

what is an independent variable

The manipulated variable, it is determined by researcher before experiment and is Determined by the treatment conditions

what is a dependent variable

The responding variable - Measured in each of the treatment conditions. determined during the course of experiement

what is a factor

Differentiates between a set of groups being compared in an experiment - ssentially the independent variables of an experiment, impacts experiment

what are some example fo factor

Animal handling, drug administration

what is condition

Describes "How is the group treated in an experiment?". A combination of factors the animal experiences (e.g., timing, handling, administration)

what is an example of condition

Handled for 10 minutes and given 10 mg of drug; Not handled and given 10 mg of drug

what are levels

Different values of the independent variable that are selected to create the treatment condition

what are some examples of levels

• Examples (Animal handling): Handling vs. no handling; handling for 10, 20, 30 minutes.

• Examples (Drug administration): Drug dosage (10, 30, 100 mg); time course (1, 2, 3, 4 hr)

what are some characteristics of a variable

• Observable: Can be measured directly or indirectly.

• Replicable: Can be consistently measured.

• Specificity: Must be specific and unambiguous for observability and replicability.

• Levels: Must have at least 2 levels/values (e.g., Sleep/Wake, Glasses/No glasses, Drug dose: 1, 5, 10 mg).

What are Operational Definitions

Converts an abstract construct into a concrete variable that can be directly observed and measured

What is the purpose of an Operational Definition

improve validity and reliability of measurments

what is a benefit of Operational Definitions

Makes replication possible

what is a situational variable

Describes characteristics of a situation or environment. focuses on What aspect of the environment changes for the subjects

ex. Amount of drug administered, time of day

what is a response variable

Refers to the responses or behaviors of subjects/participants, Typically measured after manipulating the situational variable.

Many experiments examine the effect of a situational variable ON a response variable

what is a participant variable

Refers to differences between individuals. Constant within individuals, but variable between individuals.

ex.Gender, height, genetic composition

what is a mediating variable

Help explain how and why a relationship exists between two other variables

Independent variable causes a mediating variable, which then causes a dependent variable

what is an intervention goal

often designed to change outcomes by targeting mediating variables.

what is the mediating variable of this theory:
How increased social support results in positive health practices

Decreased loneliness and increased hopefulness

where do the independent and depended variables go on a graph

x-axis: independent y-axis: dependent

what is the difference between continuous and discrete variables

• discrete variable: Measured in categories (distinct/separate values) whole number obtained by counting. ex Number of chocolate pieces, number of children

• continous variable: Measured on a continuum (any value in a range) whole unit or fraction can have decimal places obtained by measuring. ex Calories of chocolate, weight, height, age

what is the relationship between predictions and hypothesis

Predictions are derived from the hypothesis

What are the characteristics of a good hypothesis?

Logical, testable, directional, specific, refutable.

What is the difference between hypothesis and prediction?

Hypothesis = statement about variable relationship; Prediction = expected specific outcomes (via deductive reasoning).

What is an independent variable (IV)?

The manipulated variable, determined by the researcher.

What is a dependent variable (DV)?

The measured responding variable, determined during the experiment.

What are key qualities of good measurements?

Validity (measuring what you claim), Accuracy (instrument precision), Reliability (consistent results).

What is applied research?

Research directly aimed at solving practical problems (e.g., weight loss to improve sleep apnea).

What is basic research?

Research conducted to answer theoretical questions and gain knowledge for its own sake.

Why is basic research still important?

It often provides the foundation for applied research and deepens understanding of disease mechanisms.

What makes a hypothesis testable?

Variables, events, and subjects must be observable and measurable.

What makes a hypothesis directional?

It predicts the specific direction of the relationship (e.g., increase or decrease).

What makes a hypothesis refutable?

It must allow for the possibility of being proven wrong by results.

Why must variables be carefully defined and measured?

To ensure accuracy, replication, and that results are interpretable.

What are the main types of variables?

Independent variables (IVs), Dependent variables (DVs), and Control variables.

Example: “Does diet soda cause greater weight gain in men or women?”

IV: Gender; DV: Weight gain.

What 3 qualities must measurements have?

Validity, Accuracy, Reliability.

What is the difference between participants and subjects?

Participants = humans; Subjects = nonhumans (neurons, animals, tissues, etc.).

What factors must be considered when selecting participants?

Ethical considerations, demographics (species, sex, age, weight, etc.), and sample size.

what is the purpose of scales of measurments

Rules for how properties of numbers change with different uses
4 scales:
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio

what is the nominal scale

Qualitative differences in levels of a variable. Used for categorization; numbers represent something/someone. Indicates the proportion of subjects/participants in each category. Examples: Marital status, fur coat colour…

what is the ordinal scale

Measurements that convey order or rank. Numbers are meaningful in terms of order. Example: Difference between A-B grades is not the same as C-D grades. Rank order of athletes in a race

what is a limitation of the ordinal scale

Distance between numbers are not necessarily equal

what is the interval scale

Similar to ordinal, but intervals between adjacent values are constant. You know the order of values AND the distance between two values and No true zero (zero does not mean absence of the phenomenon)

Examples: Temperature, year

what is the ratio scale

Similar to interval, but has a true zero. zero means the absence of a phenomenon. Can divide and express as a fraction.

• Examples: Weight, time, age

what is the most informative scale of measurement

Ratio Scale

what is a control group

A comparator for the experimental group that provides baseline data and does not receive treatment

in an ideal scenario are there any Confounding Variables

no

identify the independent, dependedn, control and confounding variable in this study:
Dose of amphetamine required to stimulate rat locomotor activity

Independent Variable: Amphetamine dose.

• Dependent Variable: Locomotor activity.

• Control Variables: Time of day, age of rats, rat species, amphetamine source, locomotor box, housing conditions, gender.

• Confounding Variable: Ideally none; but timing/housing considerations could be confounds if not controlled

how is error generally dealt with

Error is reduced (never eliminated) when the testing procedure is standardized

what are the diffenet types of sources of error:

1. experimenter: Error arising from the person conducting the experiment

2. environmental: Error arising from the testing environment

3. participant: Error arising from the characteristics of the individuals/subjects being studied

4. instrument:Error arising from the tools or equipment used for measurement

how to reduce each type of sources of error:

1. experimenter: Ensure experimenter behaves similarly with each subject; use same clothing/experimenter/script per participant

2. environmental: Choose best conditions for testing; control temperature, time of day, noise level, and lighting

3. participant: Use inclusion/exclusion criteria decided before starting the study (e.g., animal body weight, overall health)

4. instrument: Use the same instruments, and ensure proper calibration for precision

what is face validity

The measurement "looks" like a good measure; "That makes sense!"

Based on subjective judgment - Sometimes useful for disguising the true purpose of a measurement

Example: Learned helplessness behavioral tests (forced swim, tail suspension) resemble aspects of depression

what is Predictive Validity

Scores from a new measure accurately predict future behavior, May only be assessed after the experiment is done

Examples: High blood sugar → diabetes; IQ → GPA

what is Concurrent Validity

Scores obtained using a new measure correlate with a previously established measure (the "gold standard") of the same construct. New measure is done at the same time as the gold standard

what is Convergent Validity

Two different methods of testing produce strongly related scores and converge on the same construct

what is divergent Validity

The same method used to measure two different constructs can discriminate between the constructs. Demonstrate your measurement does NOT correlate with two different constructs

what is reliability

Consistency of a measurement

what is the relationship between validity and reliability

A valid test must be reliable, but a reliable test may not be valid - ex. A scale reliably measures weight, but it's not a valid test for height

what is validity

Demonstrate that the measurement procedure is measuring what it claims to be measuring
5 types:

• face validity

• Predictive Validity

• Concurrent Validity

• Convergent Validity

• Divergent Validity

what are the 2 types of reliability

Inter-Rater Reliability:Determine correlation between scores from two independent scorers

Test-Retest Reliability: Determine correlation between scores from measurements taken at same two time points

what is the purpose of wthics in reseach

To ensure accurate, honest research conduct and reporting. Without ethics, many confounding variables can occur