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Classification
The grouping of items based on common characteristics
Density
Amount of mass per unit of volume. Density has the units: g/cm^3 or g/mL. Density of an object doesn’t change if it is cut. It will change if it is compressed, expanded, heated up, or cooled down.
Density is has the units
g/cm^3 or g/mL
Mass
The amount of matter in an object. The unit for mass is grams (g).
Volume
The amount of space an object occupies. The units for volume are cubic centimeters (cm^3) and milliliters (mL). 1 cm^3 = 1mL
Density Triangle
M/D = V, M/V = D, D*V=M
Direct relationship
as x increases, y increases
Indirect/inverse relationship
as x increases, y decreases
Cyclic relationship
as x increases, y increases and decreases in a predictable rate
Static (no relationship)
As x increases, y does not change
Bar graphs
Represent data that has been counted
Longitude lines
These lines increase by 15 degrees when it moves to the east or the west. When it comes to constellations, the constellations will always move counterclockwise or to the east.
International Date Line
The Line opposite of the Prime Meridian at 180 degrees longitude, which is also the starter point for time zones, When you cross the line heading west, it is a day later. If you cross the line heading east, it is a day earlier.
Minutes (when it comes to degrees)
The smaller units that degrees are divided into. A degree is divided into 60 minutes or 60’.
Polaris (North Star)
Used to determine the latitude you’re on in the Northern Hemisphere, It is found right above the North Pole.
Sextant
instrument that measures angles of celestial objects
Celestial Objects
objects in space
Horizon
the line where the Earths surface and sky appears to meet
Locating Polaris
The 2 stars at the end of Ursa Major (Big dipper) points to Polaris which is the star at the end of the handle of Ursa Minor (Little dipper)
Foucault Pendulum
Used to prove that the Earth rotates
Earths rotation
The Earth rotates 360 degrees in 24 hours which means each line of longitude measures 15 degrees and there are 24 time zones, 1 for each line of longitude. There is a 1 hour time difference for each 15 degrees change in longitude.
Difference in Time zone
East Increase, West Less
Sea level
Always has an elevation of 0
Index contour line
A contour line that is slightly darker than the others and it has its elevation labeled on it
Depression
Topographic feature where the land dips to lower elevation. Craters or the inside of the top of a volcano are examples of depressions and usually we use hachure marks (small tick marks).
Gradient
The value for the slope of the land. A low gradient represents a gentle slope. Calculate rise/run for gradient or change in field value/distance.
Isoline
Line that connects points of equal value on a map
Continental Drift theory
Theory that states that the continents used to be joined together but they split and moved into the position they are now. Wegener called it Pangaea.
The lithosphere
Top layer of Earth which the crust is a part of. This is made out of tectonic plates. The lithosphere follows the movement of material in the asthenosphere.
Asthenosphere
Top part of the mantle. It is unevenly heated by Earth’s core which causes the tectonic plates to move. The mantle rock is somewhat fluid since it’s partially melted which makes the asthenosphere able to transfer heat through convection.
Divergent Plate Boundary
Two oceanic plates move apart from each other, causing a mid-ocean ridge to form, filled with magma creating new crust
Transform Plate Boundary
Two continental crusts will slide past each other, causing earthquakes to form
Oceanic Oceanic Convergence
Two oceanic plates move towards each other, causing a ocean trench (deep depression) to form
Sea Floor Spreading
New crust or lithosphere is created at a divergent plate boundary. The new crust is hot and less dense, causing it to have a higher position than the older crust which leads to a mid-ocean ridge to form.
Rift valley
The part between the two diverging plates where new crust has been created
Magnetic Reversal
The Magnetic North Pole and Magnetic South Pole has switched positions throughout Earths history. This is seen on the lithosphere where a mid-ocean ridge has formed. As it switches positions, the crust will align iron-bearing minerals in the rock based on where the magnetic North and South pole is at.
Convection
Transfer of heat from one place to another by movement of a fluid that carries thermal energy and creates a circulation motion of warm and cold fluid (Convection current)
Convection in Earths mantle
Heat from inside Earths core is transferred to the asthenosphere which causes the mantle rock to heat up. It then rises since its less dense than cooler mantle rock. The heated rock then cools down and spreads out and sinks into the lower asthenosphere.
Affect of Convection on tectonic plates
The magma rises through the asthenosphere and some of it pushes through the lithosphere (crust) at a mid-ocean ridge
Mantle material at convergent plate boundaries
The mantle material sinks and pulls the subducting tectonic plate with it, causing the plate to eventually melt
Seismic waves
shockwaves of energy released from earthquakes that change speed and direction as they pass through different layers with different compositions
Stiffer mantle
The lower layer of the mantle composed of solid rock
Outer core
Composed of liquid iron and nickel
Inner core
Composed of solid iron and nickel
Earths magnetic field
thought to exist because the solid iron core is surrounded by liquid hot iron metal. The flow of liquid iron metal creates electric currents which creates the magnetic field which protects the Earth from the most radiation given off by the Sun.
Inferior temperature line
Actual temperature of a layer
Melting point line
The temperature necessary for the material in that layer to completely melt
Fault
fracture in Earths crust
Focus
The point under the surface where the earthquake starts. The epicenter is directly above this.
Seismometer
the instrument used to detect and measure seismic waves
Body waves
P Waves move straight and flat and S Waves moves wavy. S-waves don’t appear at all when passing through a liquid outer core.
Surface waves
Love waves move up and down continuously and Rayleigh waves moves up on a surface
Refraction
The differences in density for each layer of Earth would cause the waves to change direction. P-waves refract when passing through a solid inner core which caused them to show up in only some areas.
Determine the Epicenter distance
Subtract S-wave arrival time minus P-wave arrival time
Determine arrival time of P-wave and S-wave
Determine the travel time for the seismic wave using the distance provided and add it to the earthquake origin time
Determine Origin time of the Earthquake
Determine the time difference between the seismic waves and determine the epicenter distance using the time difference. Using the epicenter distance, find the travel time for one of the waves and subtract it from the arrival time. Another way is to use the epicenter distance to find the travel time for the seismic wave provided and subtracts the seismic wave arrival time and the seismic wave travel time.
Triangulation
We use the distance information from three seismic stations to locate the epicenter of an earthquake. To do it we calculate the difference in arrival time between the seismic waves then we determine the epicenter distance. The distance will be the radius of a circle drawn around the seismic station. Draw the circle for the epicenter distance around the seismic station using a compass and map scale. Where the circles intersect represents the epicenter.
Magnitude
Strength of an earthquake. We measure it using the Richter scale. This scale measures from 1 to 9+, the higher the number, the greater the strength of an earthquake.
How to calculate the magnitude on the Richter Scale
Determine the distance to the epicenter of the earthquake. Measure the maximum wave height of the S-wave recorded on the seismogram. Place a straightedge between the distance to the epicenter and the height of the largest s-wave on the appropriate scales. Draw a line connecting the two points. The line will intersect the magnitude.
Isoseismal lines
Identify areas of equal intensity
Matter
Anything that takes up space and has mass. They’re also made up of atoms made from protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Element
A substance (an atom) that cant be broken down into smaller, stable parts by physical or chemical means
Physical properties
Can be observed without changing the composition of a substance. (Ex - color, hardness, and density)
Chemical properties
Can be observed when a substance reacts with other substance. (Ex - iron reacts with oxygen to form rust)
Mineral
Naturally occurring, pure chemical substance
Physical and Chemical Properties of minerals
Color, Streak, Luster, Hardness, Dominant form of breakage. This is determined by the internal arrangement of the atoms that make up its chemical composition.
Luster
The way light is reflected off the surface of a mineral
Hardness
a minerals resistance to being scratched
Cleavage
when a mineral breaks smoothly (in a box shape or flat sides)
Fracture (opposite of cleavage)
When a mineral breaks without any shapes forming. There is no pattern to how it breaks.
Streak
The color of the powder of the mineral when scratched on a streak plate
Ore
Naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable mineral can be profitably extracted
Transpiration
The process by which liquid water is carried through plants from the roots to small pores on the leaves, where it changes to water vapor and is released to the atmosphere (Evaporation)
Aquifer
the saturated rock or sediment layer that stores water and allows it to flow as groundwater
Watershed
an area where all the precipitation, runoff and groundwater drains to the same place
Carbonation
Carbonic acids dissolves minerals. Carbon dioxide in the air or soil can dissolve in water and this produces a weak acid that can dissolve rock. Any rock made of the minerals with CaCO3 in their composition, are carbonate rocks.
Hydrolysis
Occurs when water reacts with the mineral in rocks. Sometimes rocks absorb water, swell, and become softer. This makes it easier to break apart. When water contains salt, salt crystals can form in rock pores causing the rock to further break apart.
Oxidation
When oxygen reacts with some minerals that contain iron, the mineral will break down and rust
Differential weathering
the process by which the softer parts of a rock wear away faster than the harder parts because theyre less resistant
Surface area
The total amount of surface an object has
Horizon
Soil formation continues over a long period and gradually develops layers
Soil conservation
the management of soil to prevent its destruction and loss. Examples are strip cropping, terracing, windbreaks, contour cropping, cover crops, and no till planting.
Porosity
The total amount of open space between the particles in the soil. This is determined by the shape of the particles, tightly packed they are, and if they’re sorted in size.
Permeability
the ability of a liquid to pass through. Permeability increases as the particle size increases and the rate of permeability increases as the time it takes the water to infiltrate decreases.
Capillarity
the movement of a liquid upward against gravity. This increases when the particle size decreases.
Plains landscape
Horizontal sedimentary rock layers at low elevations
Plateau landscape
Horizontal sedimentary rock layers at high elevations
Mountainous landscape
Consists of folded, faulted, tilted igneous and metamorphic rock layers at very high elevations
Relative age
The age of a rock layer based on its position compared to other rock layers
Principle of Original Horizontality
Sediments are deposited in horizontal layers parallel to the earths surface
Law of superposition
The oldest layer is on the bottom and the youngest is at the top
Law of Intrusive Relationships
Intrusions are always younger that the rock layers that it goes through/intrudes
Law of cross cutting relationships
A fault is younger than the rocks it cuts through
Folds and tilts
All deformations are younger than the rocks that are deformed
Inclusions
All fragments in a rock are older than the rock in which they appear in
Unconformity
A buried erosional surface. This means that uplift, weathering and erosion, and subsidence has occurred.
Volcanic Time Markers
Layers of ash that had been buried under more rock layers that can also be used to find out the absolute age
Greenhouse gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2), Water vapor (H2O), Nitrous oxide (N2O), and Methane (NH4) absorb infrared radiation in the atmosphere
Wind
The movement of air. It formed due to differences in air pressure. High pressure areas would move to low pressure areas with wind.
High Pressure System
They are cool and dry and the wind blows clockwise out from the center