Earth Science Regents Prep

Classification

The grouping of items based on common characteristics

Density

Amount of mass per unit of volume. Density has the units: g/cm^3 or g/mL. Density of an object doesn’t change if it is cut. It will change if it is compressed, expanded, heated up, or cooled down.

Density is has the units

g/cm^3 or g/mL

Mass

The amount of matter in an object. The unit for mass is grams (g).

Volume

The amount of space an object occupies. The units for volume are cubic centimeters (cm^3) and milliliters (mL). 1 cm^3 = 1mL

Density Triangle

M/D = V, M/V = D, D*V=M

Direct relationship

as x increases, y increases

Indirect/inverse relationship

as x increases, y decreases

Cyclic relationship

as x increases, y increases and decreases in a predictable rate

Static (no relationship)

As x increases, y does not change

Bar graphs

Represent data that has been counted

Longitude lines

These lines increase by 15 degrees when it moves to the east or the west. When it comes to constellations, the constellations will always move counterclockwise or to the east.

International Date Line

The Line opposite of the Prime Meridian at 180 degrees longitude, which is also the starter point for time zones, When you cross the line heading west, it is a day later. If you cross the line heading east, it is a day earlier.

Minutes (when it comes to degrees)

The smaller units that degrees are divided into. A degree is divided into 60 minutes or 60’.

Polaris (North Star)

Used to determine the latitude you’re on in the Northern Hemisphere, It is found right above the North Pole.

Sextant

instrument that measures angles of celestial objects

Celestial Objects

objects in space

Horizon

the line where the Earths surface and sky appears to meet

Locating Polaris

The 2 stars at the end of Ursa Major (Big dipper) points to Polaris which is the star at the end of the handle of Ursa Minor (Little dipper)

Foucault Pendulum

Used to prove that the Earth rotates

Earths rotation

The Earth rotates 360 degrees in 24 hours which means each line of longitude measures 15 degrees and there are 24 time zones, 1 for each line of longitude. There is a 1 hour time difference for each 15 degrees change in longitude.

Difference in Time zone

East Increase, West Less

Sea level

Always has an elevation of 0

Index contour line

A contour line that is slightly darker than the others and it has its elevation labeled on it

Depression

Topographic feature where the land dips to lower elevation. Craters or the inside of the top of a volcano are examples of depressions and usually we use hachure marks (small tick marks).

Gradient

The value for the slope of the land. A low gradient represents a gentle slope. Calculate rise/run for gradient or change in field value/distance.

Isoline

Line that connects points of equal value on a map

Continental Drift theory

Theory that states that the continents used to be joined together but they split and moved into the position they are now. Wegener called it Pangaea.

The lithosphere

Top layer of Earth which the crust is a part of. This is made out of tectonic plates. The lithosphere follows the movement of material in the asthenosphere.

Asthenosphere

Top part of the mantle. It is unevenly heated by Earth’s core which causes the tectonic plates to move. The mantle rock is somewhat fluid since it’s partially melted which makes the asthenosphere able to transfer heat through convection.

Divergent Plate Boundary

Two oceanic plates move apart from each other, causing a mid-ocean ridge to form, filled with magma creating new crust

Transform Plate Boundary

Two continental crusts will slide past each other, causing earthquakes to form

Oceanic Oceanic Convergence

Two oceanic plates move towards each other, causing a ocean trench (deep depression) to form

Sea Floor Spreading

New crust or lithosphere is created at a divergent plate boundary. The new crust is hot and less dense, causing it to have a higher position than the older crust which leads to a mid-ocean ridge to form.

Rift valley

The part between the two diverging plates where new crust has been created

Magnetic Reversal

The Magnetic North Pole and Magnetic South Pole has switched positions throughout Earths history. This is seen on the lithosphere where a mid-ocean ridge has formed. As it switches positions, the crust will align iron-bearing minerals in the rock based on where the magnetic North and South pole is at.

Convection

Transfer of heat from one place to another by movement of a fluid that carries thermal energy and creates a circulation motion of warm and cold fluid (Convection current)

Convection in Earths mantle

Heat from inside Earths core is transferred to the asthenosphere which causes the mantle rock to heat up. It then rises since its less dense than cooler mantle rock. The heated rock then cools down and spreads out and sinks into the lower asthenosphere.

Affect of Convection on tectonic plates

The magma rises through the asthenosphere and some of it pushes through the lithosphere (crust) at a mid-ocean ridge

Mantle material at convergent plate boundaries

The mantle material sinks and pulls the subducting tectonic plate with it, causing the plate to eventually melt

Seismic waves

shockwaves of energy released from earthquakes that change speed and direction as they pass through different layers with different compositions

Stiffer mantle

The lower layer of the mantle composed of solid rock

Outer core

Composed of liquid iron and nickel

Inner core

Composed of solid iron and nickel

Earths magnetic field

thought to exist because the solid iron core is surrounded by liquid hot iron metal. The flow of liquid iron metal creates electric currents which creates the magnetic field which protects the Earth from the most radiation given off by the Sun.

Inferior temperature line

Actual temperature of a layer

Melting point line

The temperature necessary for the material in that layer to completely melt

Fault

fracture in Earths crust

Focus

The point under the surface where the earthquake starts. The epicenter is directly above this.

Seismometer

the instrument used to detect and measure seismic waves

Body waves

P Waves move straight and flat and S Waves moves wavy. S-waves don’t appear at all when passing through a liquid outer core.

Surface waves

Love waves move up and down continuously and Rayleigh waves moves up on a surface

Refraction

The differences in density for each layer of Earth would cause the waves to change direction. P-waves refract when passing through a solid inner core which caused them to show up in only some areas.

Determine the Epicenter distance

Subtract S-wave arrival time minus P-wave arrival time

Determine arrival time of P-wave and S-wave

Determine the travel time for the seismic wave using the distance provided and add it to the earthquake origin time

Determine Origin time of the Earthquake

Determine the time difference between the seismic waves and determine the epicenter distance using the time difference. Using the epicenter distance, find the travel time for one of the waves and subtract it from the arrival time. Another way is to use the epicenter distance to find the travel time for the seismic wave provided and subtracts the seismic wave arrival time and the seismic wave travel time.

Triangulation

We use the distance information from three seismic stations to locate the epicenter of an earthquake. To do it we calculate the difference in arrival time between the seismic waves then we determine the epicenter distance. The distance will be the radius of a circle drawn around the seismic station. Draw the circle for the epicenter distance around the seismic station using a compass and map scale. Where the circles intersect represents the epicenter.

Magnitude

Strength of an earthquake. We measure it using the Richter scale. This scale measures from 1 to 9+, the higher the number, the greater the strength of an earthquake.

How to calculate the magnitude on the Richter Scale

Determine the distance to the epicenter of the earthquake. Measure the maximum wave height of the S-wave recorded on the seismogram. Place a straightedge between the distance to the epicenter and the height of the largest s-wave on the appropriate scales. Draw a line connecting the two points. The line will intersect the magnitude.

Isoseismal lines

Identify areas of equal intensity

Matter

Anything that takes up space and has mass. They’re also made up of atoms made from protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Element

A substance (an atom) that cant be broken down into smaller, stable parts by physical or chemical means

Physical properties

Can be observed without changing the composition of a substance. (Ex - color, hardness, and density)

Chemical properties

Can be observed when a substance reacts with other substance. (Ex - iron reacts with oxygen to form rust)

Mineral

Naturally occurring, pure chemical substance

Physical and Chemical Properties of minerals

Color, Streak, Luster, Hardness, Dominant form of breakage. This is determined by the internal arrangement of the atoms that make up its chemical composition.

Luster

The way light is reflected off the surface of a mineral

Hardness

a minerals resistance to being scratched

Cleavage

when a mineral breaks smoothly (in a box shape or flat sides)

Fracture (opposite of cleavage)

When a mineral breaks without any shapes forming. There is no pattern to how it breaks.

Streak

The color of the powder of the mineral when scratched on a streak plate

Ore

Naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable mineral can be profitably extracted

Transpiration

The process by which liquid water is carried through plants from the roots to small pores on the leaves, where it changes to water vapor and is released to the atmosphere (Evaporation)

Aquifer

the saturated rock or sediment layer that stores water and allows it to flow as groundwater

Watershed

an area where all the precipitation, runoff and groundwater drains to the same place

Carbonation

Carbonic acids dissolves minerals. Carbon dioxide in the air or soil can dissolve in water and this produces a weak acid that can dissolve rock. Any rock made of the minerals with CaCO3 in their composition, are carbonate rocks.

Hydrolysis

Occurs when water reacts with the mineral in rocks. Sometimes rocks absorb water, swell, and become softer. This makes it easier to break apart. When water contains salt, salt crystals can form in rock pores causing the rock to further break apart.

Oxidation

When oxygen reacts with some minerals that contain iron, the mineral will break down and rust

Differential weathering

the process by which the softer parts of a rock wear away faster than the harder parts because theyre less resistant

Surface area

The total amount of surface an object has

Horizon

Soil formation continues over a long period and gradually develops layers

Soil conservation

the management of soil to prevent its destruction and loss. Examples are strip cropping, terracing, windbreaks, contour cropping, cover crops, and no till planting.

Porosity

The total amount of open space between the particles in the soil. This is determined by the shape of the particles, tightly packed they are, and if they’re sorted in size.

Permeability

the ability of a liquid to pass through. Permeability increases as the particle size increases and the rate of permeability increases as the time it takes the water to infiltrate decreases.

Capillarity

the movement of a liquid upward against gravity. This increases when the particle size decreases.

Plains landscape

Horizontal sedimentary rock layers at low elevations

Plateau landscape

Horizontal sedimentary rock layers at high elevations

Mountainous landscape

Consists of folded, faulted, tilted igneous and metamorphic rock layers at very high elevations

Relative age

The age of a rock layer based on its position compared to other rock layers

Principle of Original Horizontality

Sediments are deposited in horizontal layers parallel to the earths surface

Law of superposition

The oldest layer is on the bottom and the youngest is at the top

Law of Intrusive Relationships

Intrusions are always younger that the rock layers that it goes through/intrudes

Law of cross cutting relationships

A fault is younger than the rocks it cuts through

Folds and tilts

All deformations are younger than the rocks that are deformed

Inclusions

All fragments in a rock are older than the rock in which they appear in

Unconformity

A buried erosional surface. This means that uplift, weathering and erosion, and subsidence has occurred.

Volcanic Time Markers

Layers of ash that had been buried under more rock layers that can also be used to find out the absolute age

Greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide (CO2), Water vapor (H2O), Nitrous oxide (N2O), and Methane (NH4) absorb infrared radiation in the atmosphere

Wind

The movement of air. It formed due to differences in air pressure. High pressure areas would move to low pressure areas with wind.

High Pressure System

They are cool and dry and the wind blows clockwise out from the center