ap psych - end of semester review

critical thinking

examines assumptions, evaluates the source, checks for hidden bias, looks at evidence, and analyzes conclusions

hindsight bias

tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

theory

explains behaviors/events by offering ideas that organize observations

falsifiability

scientific theory and/or hypothesis can be proven wrong through experimentation

hypothesis

a good theory produces testable predictions

operational definitions

a carefully worded statement of observations used in a research study

non-experimental methods

case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations

experimental methods

manipulate variables to see their effects

case study

in depth analyses of groups or individuals

naturalistic observations

recording the natural behavior of individuals

survey

people report their behavior or opinions (looks cases in less depth)

sampling bias

generalize from a few vivid but unrepresentative cases

correlation

describes the relationship b/w 2 or more variables

correlation coefficient

a statical index of the relationship b/w 2 variab;es

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

regression toward the mean

tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average

random assignment

can be used to minimize cofounding variables

single-blind procedure

is used to control the social desirability

double-blind procedure

is used to avoid the placebo effect and experimenter bias

independent varibale

factor of experiment that manipulates its effect

dependent variable

changes that occur in response to the manipulation of the independent variable

quantitative research

numerical data to represent degrees of a variable

qualitative research

rely on in-depth, narrative data

descriptive statistics

to measure & describe characteristics of the group under study

measures of central tendency

a single score that represents a whole set of scores (uses mean, median, and mode)

percentile rank

percentage of scores that are less than a given score

measure of variation

how similar or diverse the scores are(uses range)

normal curve

symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution

inferential statistics

determines if results can be generalized to a larger population

natural selection

principle that inherited traits enabling an organism to survive & reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Charles Darwin

argued that natural selection shapes behaviors, as well as bodies

evolutionary psychology

study of evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection

behavior genetics

study of relative power & limits of genetic & environmental influences of behavior

2nd Darwinian revolution

application of evolutionary principles of psychology

epigenetic studies

study of molecular mechanisms by which environments can trigger or block genetic expression

nervous system

made up of neurons

central nervous system(CNS)

consists of brain & spinal cord

peripheral nervous system(PNS)

gathers info. and transmitting CNS decisions to other parts

sensory neurons

carry messages from body’s tissues & sensory receptors *inward to brain & spinal cord for processing (afferent)

motor neurons

carry instructions from CNS *outward to body’s muscle and glands(efferent)

interneurons

information being processed b/w sensory input and motor output

somatic

enables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles

autonomic

controls our glands and internal organ muscles

sympathetic nervous system

arouses & expands energy (fight or flight)

parasympathetic nervous system

conserving energy as it calms you (rest and digest)

neurons

nerve cell; basic building blocks of nervous system

dendrite fibers

receive and integrate information

axon fiber

passes message through its terminal branches to other neurons or muscles or glands

myelin sheath

layer of fatty tissue that insulates them & speeds their impulses

glial cells(“glue cells”)

cells that support, nourish, and protect nervous in nervous system(also plays a role in learning, thinking, and memory)

action potential

a neuron sends a message by firing an impluse

resting potential

positive-outside, negative-inside state

depolarization

loss of inside/outside charge difference

refractory period

resting pause occurring after neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials

all-or-none response

neuron’s reaction of either firing or not firing

synapse

junction b/w axon tip of sending neuron and dendrite/cell body of receiving neuron (gap is called synaptic gap)

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that carry a message from sending neuron across a synapse to receptor sites on receiving neuron

reuptake

neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

Acetylcholine(Ach)

affects learning, memory, and muscle action

endorphins

natural, opioid like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

agonist

molecules that increase a neurotransmitter’s action

antagonist

molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

endocrine system

glands & fat tissue secrete another form of chemical messengers(hormones) which travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues, including the brain

psychoactive drugs

chemicals that alter the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions (ex: alcohol)

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions (ex: caffeine)

hallucinogens

drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in absence of sensory input

neuroplasticity

brain’s ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

EEG

amplified redout of such waves; waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

MEG

brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from brain’s natural electrical activity

CT scan

examines brain by taking X-ray photographs that can reveal brain damage

PET

detects brain activity that displays where radioactive form of glucose goes while brain performs a task

MRI

uses magnetic field and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue

FMRI

revealing blood flow and brain activity by comparing MRI scans(also shows brain function and structure)

hindbrain

contains brainstem structures that direct essential survival functions (ex; breathing)

midbrain

connects hindbrain w/forebrain, controls some motor movements and transmits auditory/visual info.

forebrain

manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions and voluntary motor activities

brainstem

responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

controls heartbeat & breathing

pons

helps coordinate movements & control sleep

thalamus

acts as brain’s sensory control center; receives info. from all senses except smell & routes that info. to brain’s regions that deal with the other 4 states

reticular formation

a nerve network that extends from spinal cord right up through the thalamus; filters incoming stimuli & relays important info. to other brain areas

cerebellum(little brain)

processes sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance and enables nonverbal learning + memory

limbic system

associated w/emotions, drives, and memory information

amygdala

enables aggression & fear

hypothalamus

helps maintain a steady homeostatic internal state

hippocampus

helps process explicit, conscious memories

pituitary gland

master endocrine gland

cerebral cortex

offers high capacity for leaning and thinking, enabling them to adapt to ever-changing environments

frontal lobe

enables processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and excessive functioning

parietal lobe

receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobe

includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobe

receives info. primarily from opposite ear; also enable language processing

motor cortex

controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

registers & processes body touch and movement sensations

neurogenesis

formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

wide band of axon fibers connection the 2 hemispheres and carrying messages between them

splitting brain

condition resulting from surgery, separating the brain’s 2 hemispheres by cutting fibers

consiciousness

subjective awareness of ourselves and environment

cognitive neurosceince

interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with mental processes