psychology part 2 yay

Parasympathetic nervous system

Calms the body after stress, promoting rest and digestive functions.

Sympathetic nervous system

Activates the body’s fight or flight response during stress or danger.

Thalamus

The brain’s relay station, directing sensory signals to the appropriate cortex areas for processing.

Single-blind technique

Study design where participants are unaware of which group they are in, but researchers know.

Validity

The extent to which a test or measurement accurately measures what it is intended to measure.

Behavioral Approach

Perspective focusing on observable behaviors and the ways they are learned through conditioning.

Eclectic approach

Integration of various psychological approaches.

Multicultural/sociocultural approach

Perspective emphasizing the influence of society, culture, and social interactions on behavior and mental processes.

Humanistic approach

Psychological perspective emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people.

Empiricism

The theory of knowledge primarily comes from sensory experience and observation.

Dualism

A philosophical concept that the mind and body are distinct and separate entities.

Functionalism

Psychological theory that focuses on the purpose and function of mental processes and behavior.

James-Lange theory

Emotions result from physiological reactions to stimuli.

Cannon-Bard theory

Emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

Schachter’s Cognitive theory

Emotion arises from physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Brain region involved in satiety; signals when to stop eating.

Lateral Hypothalamic

Brain region involved in hunger; stimulates eating when activated.

Overjustification Effect

External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation for previously enjoyed activities.

Yerkes-Dodson law

Performance improves with arousal to a point, then declines if arousal becomes excessive.

Cognitive consistency theory

People are motivated to maintain consistency between their thoughts, beliefs, and actions.

Drive theory

Behavior is modified by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet needs.

Display Rules

Cultural norms dictating how and when emotions should be expressed.

Affiliation Motive

Desire to form social connections, seek companionship, and be accepted by others.

Androgens

A group of male sex hormones, including testosterone, responsible for male reproductive development and characteristics.

Estrogens

A group of hormones primarily responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics.

Anorexia

An eating disorder characterized by extreme restriction of food intake and fear of gaining weight.

Bulimia

An eating disorder characterized by episodes of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors.

Instrumental aggression

Aggression aimed at achieving a specific goal or obtaining a reward.

Hostile aggression

Aggression driven by anger or the desire to harm others.

Long-term hunger cues

Signals influenced by hormones like leptin, regulating hunger based on energy balance.

Short-term hunger cues

Temporary signals that trigger hunger, such as low blood sugar and stomach contractions.

Human Sexual Response

Stages of physical and emotional changes during sexual activity: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Arousal theory

Behavior is motivated by the desire to maintain an optimal level of arousal.

Sensation Seeking theory

Some individuals are motivated to seek varied, novel, and intense sensory experiences.

Lewin’s approach-approach conflict

A type of conflict where a person must choose between two equally attractive options.

Lewin’s approach-avoidance conflict

A conflict where a person faces a single option with both positive and negative aspects.

Lewin’s Avoidance-Avoidance conflict

A conflict where a person must choose between two equally undesirable options.

Multiple Approach Avoidance conflict

Conflict where a person must choose from several options, each with positive and negative aspects.

Orexin

A hormone produced in the hypothalamus that regulates hunger and wakefulness.

Ghrelin

A hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates hunger and food intake.

Frederickson’s broaden and build theory of emotion

Positive emotions broaden awareness and build enduring psychological resources.

Leptin

A hormone produced by fat cells that signals satiety and regulates long-term energy balance.

Festinger’s cognitive dissonance

Psychological discomfort arises from holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors, prompting attitude or belief changes.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus of the hypothalamus

A small brain region regulating circadian rhythms by responding to light cues.

Hypnagogic sensations

Vivid sensory experiences, such as falling or floating, that occur during the transition into sleep.

Pineal Gland

A small endocrine gland that produces melatonin, regulating sleep-wake cycles.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking, a disorder characterized by walking or performing other activities while in a state of sleep.

Beta waves

Fast brain waves associated with active thinking, focus, and alertness.

Alpha Waves

Brain waves that occur during relaxed, calm, but awake states, often just before sleep.

Restorative theory of sleep

Sleep is essential for restoring and repairing the body and brain.

Stage 1

Lightest sleep stage, where you drift in and out of sleep with slow eye movement.

Stage 2

Light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and a lower heart rate, transitioning to deeper sleep.

Stage 3

Deep sleep stage with slow brain waves, essential for recovery and immune function.

Paradoxical sleep

Another term for REM sleep, showing heightened brain activity.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perception, thoughts, and feelings, often causing sensory distortions.

Omission Training

Form of negative punishment where a rewarding stimulus is removed to decrease a behavior.

Contingency Model of Classical Conditioning

Theory that learning depends on the conditioned stimulus reliably predicting the unconditioned stimulus.

Contiguity model of classical conditioning

Conditioning occurs because the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are presented closely in time.

Short-delayed conditioning

Classical conditioning method where the conditioned stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus.

Trace Conditioning

Classical conditioning method where the conditioned stimulus is presented and removed before the unconditioned stimulus appears.

Social cognitive theory

Learning occurs through observing others and imitating their behaviors.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated.

Chaining

Linking a sequence of behaviors together, reinforcing completion of the entire chain.

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing closer approximations of a desired behavior.

Generalized reinforcers

Reinforcers that can be exchanged for various other rewards.

Insight Learning

Sudden realization of a solution to a problem without trial and error.

Instinctive Drift

Tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to instinctive patterns, despite conditioning.

Preparedness

The innate tendency to associate a certain stimulus with specific responses due to evolutionary factors.

Acquisition Phase

Initial learning stage where a response becomes associated with a new stimulus.

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated; unfavorable outcomes discourage behavior.

Extinction

Gradual weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

Sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

Higher-order conditioning

Process where a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by pairing with an existing conditioned stimulus.

Premack’s principle

A more preferred activity can reinforce a less preferred activity.

Blocking

A phenomenon where a new conditioned stimulus fails to elicit a response due to prior conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

A learning method where behaviors are influenced by rewards or punishments.

Instrumental learning

A learning process where behavior is modified by its consequences, reinforcing desired actions.

Baby Albert

The baby was conditioned to fear a white rat, demonstrating a learned fear response.

Escape learning

Learning to perform a behavior to avoid an unpleasant stimulus.

Avoidance learning

Learning to perform a behavior to prevent an unpleasant stimulus before it occurs.

Chimp-O-Mat

Experiment using tokens to teach chimps bartering for rewards.

Token economy

A system using tokens as reinforcement, exchangeable for rewards.

Vestibular System

Sensory system that provides information about balance, spatial orientation, and motion through structures in the inner ear.

Weber’s law

Principle stating that the difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the stimulus.

Fechner’s law

Perceived intensity of a stimulus increases logarithmically as the actual intensity increases.

Visual Agnosia

A neurological condition characterized by the inability to recognize objects, people, or shapes despite intact vision.

Signal Detection Theory

A framework for understanding how we discern between a signal and noise in certain conditions.

Olfactory System

Sensory system responsible for the sense of smell, detecting airborne chemicals.

Frequency theory

Pitch of a sound is determined by the rate at which hair cells in the cochlea fire.

Place theory

Pitch of a sound is determined by the specific location on the cochlea’s basilar membrane that vibrates.

Kinesthetic System

Sensory system that detects body position, movement, and muscle coordination.

Prospagnosia

A neurological disorder causing the inability to recognize faces.

Perceptual constancies

The ability to perceive objects as stable despite changes in sensory input.

Rods

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for vision in low light conditions and peripheral vision.

Cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina that detect color and function best in bright light.

Distal Stimulus

Actual object or event in the environment that is perceived.

Habituation

Decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure without a change in the stimulus.

Phi Phenomenon

Optical illusion of perceiving continuous motion between separate, blinking lights.

Gustatory system

Sensory system responsible for the sense of taste, detecting flavors through taste buds on the tongue.

Oleogustus

Taste sensation associated with fatty acids, often described as the “taste of fat.”