psychology part 2 yay

Parasympathetic nervous system- calms the body after stress, promoting rest and digestive functions 

Sympathetic nervous system- activates the body’s fight or flight response during stress or danger 

Thalamus- the brain’s relay station, directing sensory signals to the appropriate cortex areas for processing
Single-blind technique- study design where participants are unaware of which group they are in, but researchers know 

Validity- the extent to which a test or measurement accurately measures what it is intended to measure 

Behavioral Approach- perspective focusing on observable behaviors and the ways they are learned through conditioning 

Eclectic approach- integration of various psychological approaches 

Multicultural/sociocultural approach- perspective emphasizing the influence of society, culture, and social interactions on behavior and mental processes

Humanistic approach- psychological perspective emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people

Empiricism- the theory of knowledge primarily comes from sensory experience and observation 

Dualism- a philosophical concept that the mind and body are distinct and separate entities 

Functionalism- psychological theory that focuses on the purpose and function of mental processes and behavior 

Psychodynamic Approach- psychological perspective focusing on unconscious motives, childhood experiences, or inner conflicts influencing behavior 

Structuralism- a psychological theory focusing on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components 

James-Lange theory- emotions result from physiological reactions to stimuli 

Cannon-Bard theory- emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously 

Schachter’s Cognitive theory- emotion arises from physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal

Ventromedial Hypothalamus- brain region involved in satiety; signals when to stop eating 

Lateral Hypothalamic- brain region involved in hunger; stimulates eating when activated

Overjustification Effect- external rewards reduce intrinsic motivation for previously enjoyed

Yerkes-Dodson law- performance improves with arousal to a point, then declines if arousal becomes excessive 

Cognitive consistency theory- people are motivated to maintain consistency between their thoughts, beliefs, and actions

Drive theory- behavior is modified by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet needs

Display Rules- cultural norms dictating how and when emotions should be expressed

Affiliation Motive- desire to form social connections, seek companionship, and be accepted by others

Androgens- a group of male sex hormones, including testosterone, responsible for male reproductive development and characteristics 

Estrogens- a group of hormones primarily responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics

Anorexia- an eating disorder characterized by extreme restriction of food intake and fear of gaining weight 

Bulimia- an eating disorder characterized by episodes of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors 

Instrumental aggression- aggression aimed at achieving a specific goal or obtaining a reward 

Hostile aggression- aggression driven by anger or the desire to harm others 

Long-term hunger cues- signals influenced by hormones like leptin, regulating hunger based on energy balance 

Short-term hunger cues- temporary signals that trigger hunger, such as low blood sugar and stomach contractions

Human Sexual Response- stages of physical and emotional changes during sexual activity: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution 

Arousal theory- behavior is motivated by the desire to maintain an optimal level of arousal

Sensation Seeking theory- some individuals are motivated to seek varied, novel, and intense sensory experiences

Lewin’s approach-approach conflict- a type of conflict where a person must choose between two equally attractive options

Lewin’s approach-avoidance conflict- a conflict where a person faces a single option with both positive and negative aspects

Lewin’s Avoidance-Avoidance conflict- a conflict where a person must choose between two equally undesirable options

Multiple Approach Avoidance conflict- conflict where a person must choose from several options, each with positive and negative aspects 

Orexin- a hormone produced in the hypothalamus that regulates hunger and wakefulness 

Ghrelin- a hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates hunger and food intake

Frederickson’s broaden and build theory of emotion- positive emotions broaden awareness and build enduring psychological resources 

Leptin- a hormone produced by fat cells that signals satiety and regulates long-term energy balance 

Festinger’s cognitive dissonance- psychological discomfort arises from holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors, prompting attitude or belief changes 

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus of the hypothalamus- a small brain region regulating circadian rhythms by responding to light cues 

Hypnagogic sensations- vivid sensory experiences, such as falling or floating, that occur during the transition into sleep 

Pineal Gland- a small endocrine gland that produces melatonin, regulating sleep-wake cycles 

Somnambulism- sleepwalking, a disorder characterized by walking or performing other activities while in a state of sleep 

Beta waves- fast brain waves associated with active thinking, focus, and alertness

Alpha Waves- brain waves that occur during relaxed, calm, but awake states, often just before sleep

Restorative theory of sleep- sleep is essential for restoring and repairing the body and brain 

Stage 1- lightest sleep stage, where you drift in and out of sleep with slow eye movement 

Stage 2- light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and a lower heart rate, transitioning to deeper sleep 

Stage 3- deep sleep stage with slow brain waves, essential for recovery and immune function  

Paradoxical sleep- another term for REM sleep, showing heightened brain activity

Hallucinogens- drugs that alter perception, thoughts, and feelings, often causing sensory distortions 

Omission Training- form of negative punishment where a rewarding stimulus is removed to decrease a behavior 

Contingency Model of Classical Conditioning- theory that learning depends on the conditioned stimulus reliably predicting the unconditioned stimulus

Contiguity model of classical conditioning- conditioning occurs because the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are presented closely in time

Short- delayed conditioning- classical conditioning method where the conditioned stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus 

Trace Conditoning- classical conditioning method where the conditioned stimulus is presented and removed before the unconditioned stimulus appears

Social cognitive theory- learning occurs through observing others and imitating their behaviors 

Latent Learning- learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated

Chaining- linking a sequence of behaviors together, reinforcing completion of the entire chain

Shaping- gradually reinforcing closer approximations of a desired behavior 

Generalized reinforcers- reinforcers that can be exchanged for various other rewards

Insight Learning- sudden realization of a solution to a problem without trial and error

Instinctive Drift- tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to instinctive patterns, despite conditioning 

Preparedness- the innate tendency to associate a certain stimulus with specific responses due to evolutionary factors 

Acquisition Phase- initial learning stage where a response becomes associated with a new stimulus 

Law of Effect- behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated; unfavorable outcomes discourage behavior 

Extinction- gradual weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous Recovery- sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period

Higher-order conditioning- process where a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by pairing with an existing conditioned stimulus

Premack’s principle- a more preferred activity can reinforce a less preferred activity 

Blocking- a phenomenon where a new conditioned stimulus fails to elicit a response due to prior conditioning 

Operant Conditioning- a learning method where behaviors are influenced by rewards or punishments 

Instrumental learning- a learning process where behavior is modified by its consequences, reinforcing desired actions 

Baby Albert- the baby was conditioned to fear while rate, demonstrating a learned fear response 

Escape learning- learning to perform a behavior to avoid an unpleasant stimulus

Avoidance learning- learning to perform a behavior to prevent an unpleasant stimulus before it occurs

Chimp-O-Mat- experiment using tokens to teach chimps bartering for rewards

Token economy- a system using tokens as reinforcement, exchangeable for rewards 

Vestibular System- sensory system that provides info about balance, spatial orientation, and motion through structures in the inner ear 

Weber’s law- principle stating that the difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the stimulus 

Fechner’s law- perceived intensity of a stimulus increases logarithmically as the actual intensity increases 

Visual Agnosia- a neurological condition characterized by the inability to recognize objects, people, or shapes despite intact vision

Signal Detection Theory- a framework for understanding how we discern between a signal and noise in certain conditions 

Olfactory System- sensory system responsible for the sense of smell, detecting airborne chemicals

Frequency theory- pitch of a sound is determined by the rate at which hair cells in the cochlea 

Place theory- pitch of a sound is determined by the specific location on the cochlea’s basilar membrane that vibrates

Kinesthetic System- sensory system that detects body position, movement, and muscle coordination 

Prospagnosia- a neurological disorder causing the inability to recognize faces 

Perceptual constancies- the ability to perceive objects as stable despite changes in sensory input 

Rods- photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for vision in low light conditions and peripheral vision 

Cones- photoreceptor cells in the retina that detect color and function best in bright light 

Distal Stimulus- actual object or event in the environment that is perceived 

Habituation- decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure without a change in the stimulus

Phi Phenomenon- optical illusion of perceiving continuous motion between separate, blinking lights

Gustatory system- sensory system responsible for the sense of taste, detecting flavors through taste buds on the tongue 

Oleogustus- taste sensation associated with fatty acids, often described as the “taste of fat”

Feature analysis theory- we recognize objects by breaking them down into their basic features 

Volley theory- groups of auditory nerve fibers fire in a sequence to encode high-frequency sounds

Gestalt beliefs of perception- proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and figure ground 

Parts of the eye- pupil, cornea, iris, lens, retina, optic nerve, fovea, sclera, and vitreous humor

Proximal Stimulus- sensory output or image received by the sensory organs

Perceptive deafness- hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve, the ability to perceive sound

Dichotic listening- different auditory messages are presented to each ear simultaneously 

Conductive deafness- hearing loss caused by obstructions in the outer or middle ear that prevent sound from being conducted to the inner ear

Parts of the ear- outer ear: pinna, auditory canal, tympanic membrane, inner ear: cochlea, basilar membrane, semicircular canals, Middle ear: ossicles, oval window

Pheromones- chemical signals released by organisms to affect the behavior of physiology og others of the same species

Predictive validity- the extent to which a test accurately- predicts future performance or outcomes

Crystalized intelligence- accumulated knowledge and skills gained through experience and education

Fluid intelligence- the ability to reason and solve new problems independently of past knowledge 

Criterion-related validity- the extent to which a test correlates with an external standard or outcome

Flynn effect- observed rise in average IQ scores over generations due to environmental factors 

Reciprocity Norm- the social expectation that people will return favors or kindness 

Peripheral route to persuasion- involves influence through superficial cues like attractiveness or emotions

Central route to persuasion- involves persuasion through logical argument and evidence 

Harold Kelley's Covariation Model- explains how people attribute behavior based on consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus 

Robert Sternberg’s Love theory- includes triangular theory with intimacy, passion, and commitment as key components 

Ethnocentrism- belief that one’s own culture is superior to others, leading to bias and judgment 

Scapegoat theory- tendency to blame an outgroup for problems to avoid personal or group responsibility 

Out-group homogeneity bias- tendency to see members of an outgroup as more similar than they are 

Diffusion of responsibility- the tendency to feel less personal responsibility when others are present 

Altruism- selfless concern for the well-being of others, often leading to helping behavior 

Implicit attitudes- unconscious beliefs or feelings toward a group or person that influence behavior 

Individualism- cultural orientation prioritizing personal goals and independence over group goals

Collectivism- cultural orientation valuing group goals, harmony, and interdependence 

Factors influencing conformity- factors that increase or decrease the likelihood of individuals aligning their behaviors or beliefs with a group 

Diffusion of responsibility- tendency for individuals to feel less responsible to act when others are present 

Deindividuation- loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in group situations, often leading to impulsive behavior 

Ingroup- a group of individuals who identify with 

Outgroup- a group an individual does not belong

Social Display Rules- cultural norms that dictate how and when emotions should be expressed in social situations 

Social loafing- the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone 

Social facilitation- tendency to perform better on tasks in the presence of others

Social inhibition- tendency to perform worse on tasks in the presence of others

Group polarization- tendency for group discussions to intensify members' opinions, making them more extreme

Door in the face technique- a persuasion strategy involving a large rejected request followed by a smaller one

Fott in the door technique- persuasion strategy involving a small initial request followed by a larger one 

Explanatory style- a person’s habitual way of explaining life events, either optimistically or pessimistically 

Actor/observer bias- tendency to attribute others' actions to their character, but our actions to external factors 

Mere exposure effect- the tendency to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar 

Relative Deprivation theory- feeling or being worse off compared to others, leading to dissatisfaction 

Prisoner's dilemma- a situation where individuals must choose between cooperation, self-interest, often leading to worse outcomes 

Social trap- a situation where individuals or groups prioritize short-term gains over long-term benefits, leading to negative outcomes

Fundamental attribution error- tendency to attribute others' behavior to their character rather than external factors

Self-serving bias- tendency to attribute personal success to internal factors and failures to external factors

Defensive attributions- tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, to protect oneself from feeling vulnerable 

False consensus effect- tendency to overestimate how much others share one’s beliefs, values, or behaviors

Halo Effect- tendency to assume that if a person excels in one area, they excel in others as well 

Representative heuristic- judging probability based on how similar something is to a prototype

Belief perseverance- clinging to initial beliefs despite evidence disproving them 

Defining attribute- a characteristic essential to identifying a concept or category

Gambler’s fallacy- mistaken belief that past events affect the probability of future independent events

Sunken Cost fallacy- continuing an endeavor due to past investments, despite potential loss

Executive functions- cognitive processes for managing tasks, decision making, and self-regulation

Divergent thinking- generating multiple ideas or solutions for a problem

Convergent thinking- narrowing down to a single, best solution for a problem 

Heuristic- a mental shortcut or rule of thumb to make decisions quickly and efficiently

Availability heuristic- estimating the likelihood of an event based on easily available memories or examples

Phonemes- the smallest units of sound in a language 

Morphemes- the smallest meaningful units in a language, including words or word parts

Cooling stage- the early stage of language development, where infants produce repetitive vowel-like sounds

Babbling stage- stage where infants produce repetitive, constant-vowel sounds like around 4-6 months

Fast mapping- rapidly learning a new word by associating it with its meaning after minimal exposure 

Holophrastic speech- using a single word to express a complex idea or entire sentence

Telegraphic speech- early speech stage where toddlers use two to three-word combinations, omitting unnecessary words

Iconic memory- a type of sensory memory that stores visual information for less than a second

Echoic memory- a type of sensory memory storing auditory information for 3-4 seconds

Structural- shallow processing focused on physical features, such as appearance or structure

Phonemic- level of processing focusing on sound patterns or words

Explicit memory- conscious memory of facts and experiences that can be verbally expressed

Prospective memory- memory for future intentions, like remembering to attend an appointment

Retrospective memory- memory for past events or info, like recalling a childhood memory

Proactive interference- when old memories disrupt the recall of new information

Retroactive interference- when new memories disrupt the recall of old information 

Serial position effect- tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle

Maintenance rehearsal- repeating info to keep it active in short-term memory

Elaborative rehearsal- linking new info to existing knowledge for deeper memory encoding 

Reconstructive memory- memory retrieval influenced by expectations, beliefs, and new info 

Testing effect- enhanced memory from retrieving information during tests or practice quizzes

Anterograde effect- inability to form new memories after a brain injury or trauma

Retrograde amnesia- inability to recall memories after a brain injury or trauma 

Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve- a graph showing how memory retention declines over time without rehearsal

Baddeley’s working memory- model explaining short-term memory’s role in processing and manipulating info 

Chronosystem- impact of time and life events on an individual's development

Microsystem- an immediate environment that directly influences an individual's development 

Mesosystem- interactions between different parts of a person’s microsystem

Exosystem- external environments that indirectly influence development by affecting the microsystem

Post-conventional level- third stage of moral development, where decisions are based on personal ethics and justice 

Trust vs. Mistrust- infancy (0-1) developing trust when caregivers provide reliability, with care and affection

Initiative vs. Guilt- early childhood (3-6) developing initiative through exploration, but feeling guilt if discouraged 

Macrosystem- the broader, cultural, societal, and economic influences on an individual's development

Object permanence- understanding that objects continue to exist even when not visible

Preoperational thinking- stage (2-7) years old, where children think symbolically but lack logical reasoning 

Artificialism- the belief that natural events are created by humans or a higher power

Concrete operational thinking stage (7-11), where children develop logical thinking but struggle with abstract concepts 

Operations- mental processes that follow logical rules, such as reversibility and conservation 

Reversibility- understanding that actions or operations can be undone or reversed

Conservation problems- tasks that test a child’s understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance

Formal-operational thinking- stage(12+), where individuals develop abstract, logical, and hypothetical thinking 

Formal operational thinking- tasks that test a child’s understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance 

Personal fable- belief that one’s experiences and feelings are unique and not shared by others

Secure attachment- a strong, healthy, emotional bond where children feel safe exploring and seeking comfort from caregivers

Avoidant attachment- an attachment style where children avoid or ignore caregivers, showing little emotional response to separation or return 

Resistant attachment- an attachment style where children are anxious and clingy, becoming upset when separated from their caregivers

Preconventional level- first stage of moral development, where decisions are based on avoiding punishment or gaining rewards

Conventional level- the second stage of moral development, where decisions are based on societal rules and gaining approval

Monozygotic- identical twins that develop from a single fertilized egg, sharing 100% of their genes

Dizygotic- fraternal twins that develop from two separate eggs, sharing about 50% of their genes

Stages of development- distinct phases of physical, cognitive, + social growth throughout life

Continuity position- belief that development is a gradual, continuous process without distinct stages

Discontinuity position- development occurs in distinct, separate stages with noticeable stages

Cephalocaudal development- pattern of development where growth starts from the head and progresses downward

Poximodistal development- patter of development where growth begins at the center of the body and moves outward

Menarche- first occurrence of menstruation in females, marking the onset of puberty

Habituation technique- a method in research where repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to a decrease in response

Authoritarian- strict parenting style emphasizing obedience and control with limited flexibility

Authoritative- balanced parenting style with high expectations and supportive, open communication 

Circular Reactions- repetitive behaviors in infants that help develop their understanding of the world