Psychology Chapter 8: Development Across the Life Span Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering major theories, research designs, genetic building blocks, prenatal stages, and physical, cognitive, and psychosocial milestones from Chapter 8.

Human Development

The scientific study of changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death.

Longitudinal Design

A research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time.

Cohort Effect

The impact on development when a group of people share a common time period or life experience.

Cross-Sectional Design

A research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time.

Cross-Sequential Design

A research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but also followed and assessed for a period of no more than six years.

Nature

The influence of inherited characteristics on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.

Nurture

The influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.

Behavioral Genetics

A field of study focusing on the nature versus nurture debate and how genes and environment interact.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

A special molecule containing the genetic material of an organism, structured as a twisted ladder of sugars and phosphates linked by amine rungs.

Gene

A section of DNA having a certain pattern of chemical elements.

Dominant Gene

A gene that actively controls the expression of a trait.

Recessive Gene

A gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene.

Chromosome

A tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA.

Conception

The moment at which a female becomes pregnant.

Ovum

The female sex cell, or egg.

Fertilization

The union of the ovum and sperm.

Zygote

The cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm, which divides into many cells to eventually form the baby.

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins formed when a single zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each developing into a separate embryo.

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins occurring when two separate eggs are fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time.

Germinal Period

The first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining.

Embryo

The name for the developing organism from two weeks to eight weeks after fertilization.

Embryonic Period

The period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which major organs and structures of the organism develop.

Critical Periods

Times during development in which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant.

Teratogen

Any factor, such as a drug, chemical, or virus, that can cause a birth defect.

Fetal Period

The time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child.

Viability

The point at which it is possible for an infant to survive outside the womb, usually reached between 22 and 26 weeks.

Synaptic Pruning

The process by which unused synaptic connections and nerve cells are cleared away to make way for functioning connections and cells.

Schemes

Mental concepts formed by children as they experience new situations and events.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development (birth to 2 years old), in which the infant uses senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment.

Object Permanence

The knowledge that an object exists even when it is not directly in sight.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development (2 to 7 years old), in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world.

Centration

In Piaget's theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features.

Conservation

In Piaget's theory, the ability to understand that changing the appearance of an object does not change its basic nature or quantity.

Irreversibility

In Piaget's theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action.

Concrete Operations Stage

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development (7 to 12 years old), in which the child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking.

Formal Operations Stage

Piaget's final stage of cognitive development (12 years to adulthood), in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Scaffolding

A process in Vygotsky's theory where a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, gradually reducing assistance as the learner becomes more capable.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone versus what that child can do with the help of a teacher.

Private Speech

Vygotsky's term for a child talking out loud to themselves as a way to think and advance cognitively.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A developmental disorder encompassing a range of problems in thinking, feeling, language, and social skills.

Temperament

The behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth, categorized as easy, difficult, or slow to warm up.

Attachment

The emotional bond formed between an infant and the primary caregiver.

Contact Comfort

The security derived from physical closeness and soft contact, demonstrated by Harlow's monkey experiment.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first psychosocial stage (birth to 1 year), where infants learn a basic sense of trust depending on how well their needs for food, comfort, and affection are met.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's second psychosocial stage (1 to 3 years), where toddlers attempt to understand that they can control their own actions and develop independence.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson's third psychosocial stage (3 to 5 years), where preschoolers learn to take responsibility for their behavior as they develop self-control.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial stage (5 to 12 years), where children learn new skills in academic and social worlds, comparing themselves to others.

Adolescence

The period of life from about age 13 to the early 20s, during which a person is no longer physically a child but not yet an independent adult.

Puberty

The physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak.

Personal Fable

An adolescent cognitive belief in which young people view themselves as unique and protected from harm.

Imaginary Audience

An adolescent cognitive belief in which young people feel that others are just as concerned about their thoughts and appearance as they are.

Preconventional Morality

Kohlberg's first level of moral reasoning, in which the morality of an action is based on direct consequences (rewards and punishments).

Conventional Morality

Kohlberg's second level of moral reasoning, in which an action is morally right if it conforms to societal rules and norms.

Postconventional Morality

Kohlberg's highest level of moral reasoning, in which morality is determined by personal judgment and ethical principles, even if conflicting with societal laws.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Erikson's fifth stage of personality development, in which adolescents must find a consistent sense of self.

Emerging Adulthood

The period of life spanning from late adolescence through the 20s.

Menopause

The physical decline in the female reproductive system resulting in the cessation of ovulation, menstrual cycles, and reproductive capability.

Andropause

The gradual changes in sexual hormones and the reproductive system experienced by aging males.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson's stage in young adulthood focused on forming emotional and psychological closeness based on trust and sharing while maintaining a sense of self.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's stage in middle adulthood focused on providing guidance to the next generation or contributing to society through parenting, career, or volunteering.

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Erikson's final stage in late adulthood characterized by a sense of wholeness from living a full life and the ability to let go of regrets.

Cellular Clock Theory

A theory of aging proposing that biological cells have a limited number of times that they can reproduce.

Wear-and-Tear Theory

A theory proposing that repeated use and physical abuse of body tissues cause cumulative damage over time that cannot be repaired.

Free Radical Theory

A biological theory of aging stating that oxygen molecules with unstable electrons move around cells, damaging cell structures.

Activity Theory

A theory of psychological adjustment proposing that older adults are happier and adjust better if they remain active in hobbies or volunteering.