AP Psychology - Chapter 11

Sex

Biological classification of individuals as male or female based on physical characteristics and genetics.

Gender

Social and psychological aspects of being male or female, including identity, roles, and societal expectations.

Sex does not equal _________.

Gender

Gender is influenced by __________, ____________, and __________

socialization, biology, and experience

Sex Hormones

Promote development of reproductive structures and secondary sex characteristics (traits not directly involved in reproduction such as breasts or facial hair).

Sex Chromosomes

determine biological sex

Female Chromosome

XX

Male Chromosome

XY

Gonads

produce sex hormones

Male Gonads

testes (produce sperm, mainly testorerone - primary androgen

Female Gonads

ovaries (produce ova, mainly estrogen and progesterone)

Disorders of Sexual Development (DSD)

Conditions where chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical sex development is atypical; previously treated with immediate surgery but now approached more cautiously.

Gender Identity

One's personal sense of belonging to a male, female, or other gender category.

Includes the multifaceted nature of gender expression and roles.

Instrumentality Traits

Masculine traits like assertiveness, dominance, bravery, independence

Expressiveness Traits

Feminine traits like nurturing, warmth, sensitivity, gentleness.

Androgyny

High scores in both masculine and feminine traits; linked to greater psychological resilience.

Transgender

When psychological gender differs from biological sex.

Gender Dysphoria

distress due to mismatch between biological sex and gender identity.

Treatment Options for Transgender Experience

changes in dress, hormones, or surgery, but many do not pursue all steps.

Cisgender

When gender identity matches biological sex

Biological Approach to Gender Development

• Focus on genes, prenatal hormones, and brain structure/function differences between males and females.

• Example: SRY gene on Y chromosome triggers testes development and androgen production.

• Research includes differences in attention (e.g., looking at mobiles or faces) in infants.

Evolutionary Approach to Gender Development

• Gender differences are shaped by evolutionary selection pressures, particularly sexual selection.

Sexual Selection (Part of Evolutionary Approach)

involves competition (males compete for mates) and choice (females choose mates, investing more into offspring)

Social Cognitive Approach to Gender Development

• focuse on how children learn about gender

• reward and punishment, observational learning, and modeling

• gender conforming or gender nonconforming behavior

Gender Schemas

Mental frameworks for understanding appropriate gender behavior.

Social Role Theory (Alice Eagly)

• Physical and reproductive differences shape social roles historically: women primarily in home/child-rearing, men in external work.

• This division leads to gender roles—expectations for feelings, thoughts, and actions based on sex.

Gender Stereotypes

overgeneralized beliefs that can create double standards

Emotion, Helping, Empathy

• Common stereotype: women are more emotional than men, but research shows greater similarities than differences.

• Women report higher empathy and are more likely to help in safe situations; men more likely in dangerous or situations requiring competence.

Cognitive Ability

• Minimal overall differences between genders.

• If differences exist:

  • Girls perform slightly better on verbal tasks.

  • Boys perform slightly better on spatial tasks.

Gender Similarities Hypothesis

Men and women are much more alike than different cognitively.

Overt Aggression

direct harm, more common in men than women possibly due to size and hormones.

Relational Aggression

• Harm to social standing; exhibited by both sexes but proportionally higher in women, requiring social understanding.

Sexuality

• Stereotype: men have greater sexual preoccupation than women; research shows smaller and less consistent differences.

• Men engage more in casual sex; women report more bisexuality and sexual fluidity.

Sexual Orientation

• Defined as direction of erotic interest, encompassing identity and experience.

Origins of Sexual Orientation

• No definitive cause; likely multifactorial.

Sex (Sexual Behaviors)

• Sex is complex with various definitions; includes more than just intercourse.

• Kinsey pioneered scientific study of sex.

• Married couples tend to have more sex; most report fidelity.

Human Sexual Response Pattern

• Masters and Johnson's Four Phases:

  1. Excitement: Blood vessel engorgement and muscle tension.

  2. Plateau: Heightened arousal and increased breathing/heartbeat.

  3. Orgasm: Intense pleasure and neuromuscular release; oxytocin release.

  4. Resolution: Return to baseline; males experience refractory period.

Kaplan added _____ phase highlighting motivation and cognition in sexual activity.

Desire

Sexual Scripts

• Cultural expectations guiding sexual behavior, differing by gender and culture.

Comprehensive Sex Education

• Teaches about practices and contraception to reduce STIs and teen pregnancy

Abstinence-Only Education

• Emphasizes abstinence and potential contraceptive failures.

Paraphilic Disorders

• Recurrent sexual fantasies or behaviors involving nonhuman objects, suffering, humiliation, or nonconsenting persons.

Pedophilic Disorder

• Sexual attraction to prepubescent children, often linked with psychosocial difficulties and more common in men; treatments include drugs and castration.

Low Sexual Desire

• Caused by low androgen levels, stress, depression, physical illness, or medications; treatable with drugs, therapy, and counseling