Topic 1: British Political System

Political Parties

Groups that emerged in the 18th century with factions like Whigs and Tories, representing different interests and ideologies.

French Revolution Impact on Parties

The Whigs were more receptive to revolutionary ideas, while Tories remained opposed, leading to divisions and alliances among rival groups.

Electoral System

The method by which MPs were elected, including property qualifications and the influence of patronage and bribery.

Local Government

Governance mainly handled by the landed elite, managing public safety, education, and other local matters through appointed magistrates and Lord Lieutenants.

Central government

• Local and private legislation e.g. presenting bills for the enclosure of land in an MPs county

• Maintained law and order

• Foreign policy 

• Commons job was to scrutinise the gov in these areas and grant money to pay for them

Boroughs

• 432 MPs

• Earliest boroughs chosen in the middle ages. 

• Many boroughs had declined with some only having a few electors but still elected 2 MPs (rotten boroughs).

• Generally needed an income of £300 a yea

Counties

• 122 MPs

• Property qualification: annual income of £600 from land

the franchise

• Voting used be public - could sell votes for money or patronage - George III set aside £12,000 for bribes to secure candidates won 

• Less than 500,000 adult males could vote (1 in 8 of the population)

County Franchise

• More uniform than boroughs

• 1430 and 1432 Acts: male owners of freehold land worth at least 40 shillings per annum could vote. 

• Vast majority could not vote

• English County electorate in 1831 - 200,000

• Sizes of countries varied. E.g. Rutland and Anglesey had <1000 whilst Yorkshire had > 20,000

• Ppl who owned property in multiple constituencies could vote multiple times, no need to live in a constituency to vote

Borough Franchise

• Varied, 6 types of parliamentary boroughs:

• Freemen were electors

• Franchise restricted to paying a form of municipal taxation

• Franchise of only those who had a burgage (backgarden)

• Franchise of only the corporation 

• Franchise of male householders

• Franchise of freeholders of land

• Number of voters varied

• Mostly in the south as that was were industries and agriculture had been

• Bribery used often

• Largest borough: Westminster - 12,000 voters

• Rotten boroughs: very small electorates e,g, Old Sarum - had no people living there but had 7 burgage land plots owned by the Earl of Caledon who therefore could choose 2 MPs

Were there political parties?

• One view: No party system. Just a network of aristocratic families using bribery, connection and patronage to control the HofC for their own interests. 

• Alternative: this was the beginning of political parties. Failure in the war w/ America (blamed on the King) formed a group that wanted to lessen the powers of the King (Whigs). 

• Some groups operated together to secure places in government e.g. Rockingham Whigs

• Some to safeguard the interest of particular groups e.g. the East India Company or industry

Whigs

• Identified with support for the 1689 Glorious Revolution - replaced James II with Protestant monarchs

• Believed in Protestant succession, some toleration for religious Dissenters, more liberal view of CofE and sympathy for financial and commercial interests

• In 1714, Whigs supported Hanovers becoming monarchs and so helped power for most of the 18th century. During this time, their main opposition was between feuding Whig families rather than Tories.

• Wanted to limit the power of the King

Tories

• Party of the landed interest and the High Church Faction in the CofE

• Hostile to dissenters

• Did not support the Hanoverians so had minimal power when George I became King.

Growth of party

• Geroge III hated the party system but by appointing ministers outside of mainstream Whig families e.g Lord North (who were then called Tories), he created a strong opposition

• Years leading up to 1783, there was a large and united Whig opposition (about 100 ppl) who challenged a seemingly Tory gov who supported monarchical rights. (Evans)

• Whiggism was the fundamental ideology of several political groups. It was not a unified or coherent party

Differences between whigs and Tories

• Whigs more open to parliamentary reform. Mainly pushed by younger Whigs like Grey with older Whigs like Burke rejecting this 

• Religion: Whigs more open to removing religious disabilities- following the Act of Union, pushed for more civil liberties for Irish Catholics. Tories opposed this - did not wanted dissenters of the CofE to be proper citizens

• Powers of the King: Whigs wanted to limit it. Tories supported that the King could form his own gov and choose his own ministers e.g. Duke of Wellington saying he would not refuse to lead a gov for the King even if he was told to pursue policies he disagreed with. 

• Relevance of party as idea: Fox believed in party organisation to check the personal power of the king, he attempted to build his own party and gathered 130 committed supporters, Pitt however, believed in the King's right to appoint his ministers and exert influence. He relied on the support of the King and by 1788 only had 52 personally committed supporters

• French Revolution and radical threat: whigs more receptive to the Revolution initially, Tories were not. But, moderate Whigs (like Portland and Burke) did split with Fox and allied with Pitt against France and Revolutionary ideas

similarities between whigs and tories

Fundamental similarities: supported the Established position of the Church. Most Whigs against the events of France and rejected radicalism (e.g. demands of Paine). Shared a reverence for the Constitution. Believed in gov by a hereditary landed interest - political power should be proportionate to property.

Ideological differences not enough to stop ppl working together eg. Portland (Tory) joining Pitt’s (whiggish) gov

Constitutional Crisis of 1782-1812

1781- Britain lost America. Happened during Lord North’s gov who was supported by George. North became very unpopular and resigned in March 1782

Rockingham gov

(Whig) - March-July 1872

• Led by Marquess of Rockingham (had been PM in 1765). Head of powerful connection of Whigs. During the 1770s had defended the Glorious Revolution and criticised excessive power of the King and his ministers 

• Home sec = Earl of Shelbourne. Foreign sec = Charles James Fox

• Weakened by rivalry between Fox and Shelburne + dislike of George III who resented their attempts to reduce power of royal patronage

• Rockingham dead in July 1782 of Influenza

Shelburne gov

July 1872 - Feb 1783

• Shelburne disliked + distrusted by Whigs. Thought he was in it for himself and he was too close to the King (supported by him as PM)

• Fox resigned in opposition with Burke, Sheridan, Portland and Cavendish following him 

• Pitt the Younger appointed Chancellor of Exchequer

• Shelburne - favoured conciliatory line with the Americans so was a critic of North’s gov

• Main job of his gov was to make peace w/ Americans - he was perceived as excessively generous in terms of territory but he wanted America to prosper so they could be a market for British goods

• Gov weakened by:

  Generous peace terms for americans

  Failed to cut gov costs

  Emergence of fox as new head of rockingham whigs

• Alliance between fox and north

• Feb 1783 shelburne resigned following hostile motions from fox and north

Duke of Portland gov

March - Dec 1783 —> Fox-North coalition

• Fox and North previously political opponents

• George III disliked Fox and resented North for allying with him. Only accepted the coalition after a 5 week delay and appointed the Duke of Portland as PM. he did not give them the normal tools of patronage

• Burke = paymaster general

• George couldn’t find another ministry to be formed. Gave several offers to pitt. 

• Treaty of Paris - signed September 1783 to formally end the American Revolutionary War. 

• Gov came under strain with opposition to Pitt introducing proposals for electoral reform to tackle bribery and rotten boroughs. Did not pass but caused tension in the coalition. 

• Fox-North disliked - viewed as in it for themselves

India Bill

• George schemed against them with Fox’s India Bill which sought to bring the east India Company under govt control

• 2 problems with the bill:

  >Offended powerful East India interest as it shifted power from them to Parliament. Much opposition from Eastern traders and City of London

  >The Board, which would make all appointments in the Indian gov was to be appointed by the Ministers of the day, and the first group of seven were all supporters of the Coalition. This represented powerful patronage that was outside the hands of the King. 

• King claimed Fox was subverting the constitution by putting his own supporters into key positions and was determined to rid himself of the government.

• Working w/ Pitt he used patronage and influence to call on the HofL to reject the plan. The Lords rejected the /bill by 19 votes which George used as evidence that the gov had lost support and dismissed it. Then he appointed Pitt

Pitt

• Joined Parliament in 1780 for Cambridge. Allied with the Whigs

• Apart of Rockingham and Fox’s opposition to the government but not closely allied to them- an Independent whig. Therefore, he was clean of their unpopularity

• Main subject of his early speeches were Reform - economic and political 

• Did criticise the excessive power of the King

• March 1784 motion for Pitt’s dismissal passed by one vote. Parliament dissolved and a general election was triggered

Pitt’s initial position 1783-4

• Weak:

• Pitt was the youngest PM at 24 yrs old. Had only 4 years of experience in parliament and had been a minister for 9 months.

• Few serious political allies. All his cabinet sat in the Lords and his Home Sec (his cousin Earl Temple) resigned after 4 days

• Did not have a majority in HofC. only 140 firm supporters and a number of independents. Fox-North has an overall majority against the gov by about 60.

• Jan 1784 motion of no confidence. Pitt did not resign and retained the support of the King 

Pitt’s strategies for securing power

building support in parliament, building support in the country

building support in parliament

• 
  Delayed George on calling an immediate election so he could strengthen his position in the commons

• Confronted Fox and the Rockingham Whigs in debate to win over Independents

• Wanted to win over North supporters who disliked Fox

• Pitt not tainted by previous failed administrations

• Proposed his own India Bill which was defeated but showed he could be a reformer and work with the East India Company

• Slowly won over MPs with Fox’s majority falling to single digits by March 1784

• March 1784 Fox's attempt to block the Militia bill only succeeded by a single vote 

• Fox’s willingness to threaten the King’s control of the armed forces encouraged a growing number of backbenchers to support the gov 

• (Pitt already has a majority in the HofL)

• Patronage - George granted no peerages to Fox-North but gave a whole host for Pitt e.g, Duke of Northumberland who controlled 7 seats was given a barony for his second son. 

• 11 new peers created and 11 existing Peers were promoted in Pitt’s 1st year

• 29 office-holding MPs quit in solidarity with Fox which allowed him to appoint his own men

• By March 1784 50 Northite MPs deserted the Coalition for Pitt 

Building support in the country

• Pitt was seen as a refreshing change to the dishonesty and corruption of Fox-North

• Many petitions supported his appointment

• Pitt played the middle ground. Willing to reform where needed but was not okay with overdoing it. This would rally the conservative and reformist support