Mod 7 and 8

What is the main function of the endocrine system?

It acts as the body’s messaging system by releasing hormones that travel through the blood to organs.

What do hormones regulate?

Metabolism, growth, reproduction, and stress responses.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?

It is the "boss" of the endocrine system and directs the pituitary gland.

Why is the pituitary gland called the "master gland"?

Because it controls other endocrine glands and releases important hormones.

Name two hormones released by the pituitary gland.

Growth Hormone (GH) and Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH).

What does the thyroid gland regulate?

Metabolism, energy levels, and growth and development.

What are the two main hormones produced by the thyroid gland?

Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4).

What is the function of the parathyroid glands?

To control calcium levels in the blood.

What hormones are produced by the adrenal glands?

Cortisol and adrenaline (epinephrine).

What is the function of the adrenal glands?

They help the body respond to stress.

What hormones are produced by the pancreas?

Insulin (lowers blood glucose) and glucagon (raises blood glucose).

What hormones are produced by the ovaries?

Estrogen and progesterone.

What hormone is produced by the testes?

Testosterone.

What is the function of the sex hormones?

They influence reproduction and secondary sexual characteristics.

What is the function of Insulin and where is it produced?

Lowers blood sugar; produced by the pancreas.

What is the function of Glucagon and where is it produced?

Raises blood sugar; produced by the pancreas.

What is the function of Cortisol and where is it produced?

Helps the body respond to stress; produced by the adrenal glands.

What is the function of Epinephrine (Adrenaline)?

Increases heart rate and energy during stress.

What is the function of Thyroid Hormones (T3 & T4)?

Control metabolism and energy.

What is the function of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)?

Regulates water balance in the body.

What is the function of Growth Hormone (GH)?

Promotes growth and development.

Name six hormones released by the anterior pituitary.

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

• Luteinizing hormone (LH)

• Growth hormone (GH)

• Prolactin

Name two hormones released by the posterior pituitary.

• Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone, ADH)

• Oxytocin

What does ACTH do?

Stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol.

: What does TSH do?

Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce T3 and T4.

What does FSH do?

Stimulates the production of eggs in females and sperm in males.

What does LH do?

Triggers ovulation in females and testosterone production in males.

What does Prolactin do?

Stimulates breast milk production.

What does Oxytocin do?

Stimulates contractions during childbirth and milk let-down during breastfeeding.

What is the function of Thyroxine (T4)?

Helps regulate metabolism, energy production, and growth.

What is the function of Triiodothyronine (T3)?

Works with T4 to control metabolism and development.

What is the function of Calcitonin?

Lowers blood calcium levels by promoting calcium storage in bones.

What is the function of Cortisol?

Helps the body respond to stress, regulates metabolism, and reduces inflammation.

What is the function of Aldosterone?

Regulates sodium and potassium levels; helps control blood pressure.

What is the function of Androgens (from adrenal gland)?

Contribute to the development of male traits and influence libido in both sexes.

What is the function of Epinephrine (Adrenaline)?

Increases heart rate, breathing rate, and energy in response to stress (fight or flight).

What is the function of Norepinephrine?

Works with epinephrine to control alertness and the body’s response to stress.

: What hormone is produced by the testes and what is its function?

Testosterone – develops male sexual characteristics and supports sperm production.

What is the function of Estrogen?

Develops female sexual characteristics and regulates the menstrual cycle.

What is the function of Progesterone?

Prepares the uterus for pregnancy and supports early stages of pregnancy.

What is Diabetes Mellitus?

A condition with high blood sugar due to lack of insulin (Type 1) or insulin resistance (Type 2).

What is Hypothyroidism?

: A condition where the thyroid produces too little hormone.

What are common symptoms of Hypothyroidism?

Slow metabolism, weight gain, and fatigue.

: What is Hyperthyroidism?

A condition where the thyroid produces too much hormone.

What are common symptoms of Hyperthyroidism?

Weight loss, rapid heartbeat, and anxiety.

What is Cushing’s Syndrome?

A condition caused by excess cortisol.

What are common symptoms of Cushing’s Syndrome?

Weight gain, high blood pressure, and a round face.

What is Addison’s Disease?

A condition caused by insufficient cortisol.

What are common symptoms of Addison’s Disease?

Fatigue, weight loss, and low blood pressure.

Why is bilirubin elevated in newborns?

Due to immature liver function.

What can high bilirubin levels cause in newborns?

: Jaundice and risk for kernicterus if very high.

Why might ketones be elevated in a newborn?

From fat breakdown in premature or stressed infants.

What do elevated ketone levels indicate?

Risk of hypoglycemia and metabolic acidosis.

Why is uric acid elevated in the early newborn period?

From breakdown of fetal red blood cells.

What does elevated uric acid cause in diapers?

Brick dust” urine – orange-red crystals; usually benign.

Why might ammonia levels be high in neonates?

Immature liver can't clear ammonia efficiently.

What are signs of elevated ammonia in a newborn?

Lethargy, poor feeding; may indicate metabolic disorder.

Why does proteinuria occur in newborns?

Immature kidney filtration; usually transient.

Why does proteinuria occur in newborns?

Immature kidney filtration; usually transient.

What does persistent proteinuria suggest?

Possible renal pathology.

Why are glucose levels abnormal in neonates?

Common in infants of diabetic mothers, preemies, or stressed babies.

What are signs of hypoglycemia in newborns?

: Jitteriness, poor feeding.

What are signs of hyperglycemia in newborns?

Polyuria, dehydration.

Why are fatty acids & lipids elevated after birth?

Newborns rely more on fat metabolism post-birth.

Are elevated lipids in newborns normal?

Yes – it’s a normal adaptation to extrauterine life.

Why might lactic acid be elevated in neonates?

Due to birth stress or temporary oxygen deprivation.

What can elevated lactic acid indicate?

Metabolic stress, hypoxia, or underlying metabolic condition.

What is TRH (Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone)?

A hormone made by the hypothalamus that stimulates the pituitary gland to release TSH.

Where is TRH produced?

In the hypothalamus.

What hormone does TRH stimulate the pituitary to release?

TSH – Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone.

What does TSH stimulate?

The thyroid gland to release T3 and T4.

What are the thyroid hormones T3 and T4 responsible for?

Metabolism, energy levels, growth, and development.

What is the role of the negative feedback loop in the TRH pathway?

High levels of T3 & T4 inhibit TRH and TSH production to maintain balance.

What happens in hyperthyroidism regarding the TRH pathway?

Too much TRH → Excess TSH → High T3/T4.

What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

Weight loss, sweating, rapid heart rate.

What happens in hypothyroidism regarding the TRH pathway?

: Too little TRH → Low TSH → Low T3/T4.

What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism?

Fatigue, weight gain, slow metabolism.

What is a hallmark height finding in GHD?

Height at or below the 3rd percentile, with proportional height and weight.

What is a key skeletal sign of GHD?

Delayed epiphyseal closure (growth plate maturation).

What type of fat distribution is seen in GHD?

Prominent subcutaneous abdominal fat deposits.

Describe the facial appearance in GHD.

Child-like face with a large, prominent forehead.

What is a common voice characteristic in children with GHD?

High-pitched voice.

What is delayed or altered in dental development with GHD?

Dentition (tooth eruption and development).

How is muscle mass affected in GHD?

Decreased muscle mass is common.

What jaw abnormality may occur in GHD?

Underdeveloped jaw.

What is a metabolic effect of GHD?

Increased insulin sensitivity.

What is the primary treatment for GHD?

Growth Hormone Replacement Therapy (GHRT). Somatropin

What types of support are recommended for GHD?

Nutritional, developmental, and psychosocial support for the child and family.

What complications should be monitored for during GHRT?

Monitor for side effects and potential development of diabetes.

What is the main purpose of GHRT?

To treat Growth Hormone Deficiency (GHD) by replacing the missing hormone with recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH).

How is GHRT typically administered?

By daily subcutaneous injections, usually by the patient or caregiver.

What factors influence GHRT dosage?

Age, weight, and medical need.

How is the GHRT dosage managed over time?

Regularly adjusted by a healthcare provider based on growth patterns and lab results.

What is monitored during GHRT follow-ups?

• Growth patterns

• Hormone levels (via blood tests)

• Overall health and side effects

What supportive care might be added to GHRT?

• Thyroid hormone replacement (if needed)

• Physical therapy for muscle development

• Nutrition plans to support growth

What are some psychosocial challenges children on GHRT may face?

• Feeling different from peers

• Low self-esteem from delayed growth

What kind of emotional support may benefit GHRT patients?

Counseling and support groups to build confidence and cope emotionally.

What type of care approach does GHRT require?

A multidisciplinary approach, including medical, physical, and emotional support.

What is the epiphyseal plate?

A cartilage layer at the ends of long bones, located between the epiphysis (end) and diaphysis (shaft).

What is the primary function of the growth plate?

It controls and enables bone growth during childhood and adolescence.