Unit 0 - AP Psychology

Psychodynamic

Explores how unconscious drives, conflicts, and childhood experiences shape behavior.

Behaviorism: Focuses o observable behavior and the ways they’re learned through interacting with the environment.

Humanistic

Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and the concept of self-actualization.

Congitive

Examines internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

Biological

Studies the physiological bases of behavior in humans and naimals.

Evolutionary

Considers how behavior and mental processes serve as adaptations for survival and reproduction.

Sociocultural

Analyzes how culture, social norms, and social environments influence behavior.

Mental processes

Everything happening inside out heads that can’t be seen from the outside.

Behavior

Its all the things we can see people do on the outside.

Confirmation bias

People tend to look for, interpret, or remember information in a what that confirms what they already believe.

Hindsight bias

People believe that they knew something was going to happen after it has already occurred, even if they didn’t actually predict it beforehand.

Overconfidence

When people have too much faith in their own judgements or abilities, thinking they know more than they actually do.

Empirical evidence

Refers to information that is obtained through observation, experimentation, or measurement.

Hypothesis

In psychology, it is a specific, testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables on the outcome of a research study.

Falsifiable

A falsifiable hypothesis in psychology is a statement that can be tested and potentially proved false through observation or experimentation.

Replication

The process of repeating or reproducing a research study to determine if its findings can be consistently observed. This involves conducting the sample experiment or study with mew participants under similar condition and using the similar procedures as the original study.

Peer Review

A process where research articles and studies are evaluated by experts in the field before they are published in academic journals.

Reliability

A measure or test is considered reliable if it produces consistent results when administered repeatedly under similar conditions.

Quantitative Data

Number-based information gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments (Numerical)

Qualitative Data

Not about numbers but gives deeper insights into complex topics (Non-numerical)

Likert Scales

A measurement tool used in surveys and questionnaires to assess people’s attitudes, opinions, or perceptions.

Structural Interviews

Predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the same order. This allows for consistent data collection and facilitates comparisons across participants.

Survey Technique

Used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures.

Wording Effect

Changes in he phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence responses, interpretations and respondents. This can lead to biased or inaccurate data due to variables in how individuals perceive and understand the question.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of individuals to respond in a manner that is viewed favorable by others or conforms to social norms rather than providing honest or accurate answers.

Naturalistic Observation

Observed and recorded behavior in real-world settings without intervention or manipulation.

Case Study

In depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon. It may not always be generalizable to broader populations due to their focus on specific area.

Correlational Research

Used to examine the relationship between two or more variables. Focuses on observing and measuring naturally occurring associations between variables. It allows psychologists to identify patterns and make predictions, but it does not establish causation between variables.

Meta Analysis

The statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions. It combines data.

Experimental Method

Ivnstigates cause-and-effect relationship between variables. The researcher manipulates one variable and measures its effects on another variable.

Third variable problem

The possibility that a third, unmeasured variable may be influencing the relationship between the two variables of interest. The presence of a correlation does not imply a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables, as there could be other factors at play.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure used in correlation research to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship. The closer the correlation coefficient is to + 1 or - 1, the stronger the relationship between variables. A 0 indicates no relationship between the variables.

Positive Correlation

A correlation coefficient of + 1 indicates a perfect correlation. Variables moving in the same direction.

Negative correlation

A correlation coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative relationship. Variables moving in the opposite direction.

Strength

A correlational coefficient close to 1 or -1 indicates a strong relationship while one closer to 0 indicates a weak relationship.

Positive or Negative

A positive correlation means that as one variable increases the other variable tends to increase as well. A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.

Measures of central tendency

Tools used to decries the central or average values of a set of data.

Mean

Average value

Median

Middle value of a data set when the values are arrange in ascending to descending order.

Mode

Most frequently occuring value in a data set.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Normal Curve/Bell Curve

The majority of the data falls near the center, or mean, of the distributions with progressively fewer values occurring further away from the mean in both directions.

Positive Skew

Unusually high values. A positive skew has a tail that goes to the right.

Negative Skew

Exceptionally low values. Tail goes to the left.

Standard deviation

A way to measure how spread out or close together numbers are together in a group. A sigma stands in for the symbol for the standard deviation.

Bimodial Distribution

Two distinct peaks or high points on a histogram or frequency distribution graph. Two moderns, or values that occur frequently.

Statistical Significane

Results in a research study are not due to chance. P-Value < 0.05, statistical significant difference; P-Value > 0.05 No statistical significant difference.

Effect sizes

A large effect side indicated a substantial difference. A small effect size indicates a minimal difference in relationship. Effect is large enough to be meaningful in the real world.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBS)

Committees responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards.

Protect Participants

Protects the participants from harm, emphasizes the obligation of researcher to minimize risks and ensure the well being of research participants throughout the study process.

Informed Consent

Individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research study after being provided with comprehensive information about the study’s purpose.

Informed Consent

Individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research study after being provided with comprehensive information about the study’s purpose.

Informed Assent

Specifically applies to research involving children on individuals who may have limited decision-making capacity, such as those with cognitive impairments or developmental disabilities.

Confidentiality

Handle sensitive data and personal information obtained during the study with the utmost discretion and confidentiality.

Debriefing

Providing participants with comprehensive information about the true member, purpose, and procedures of a research study immediately after their participation.