AP psychology unit 0 vocabulary

Cultural norms

An unwritten rule, standard, or shared expectation that guides how people think, act, and interact within a specific group or society

Confirmation bias

The human tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and remember information that matches what we already believe, while ignoring or doubting evidence that goes against our views

Hindsight bias

The psychological tendency to believe, after an event happens, that you predicted or expected it, even if it was actually unpredictable

Overconfidence

A mental bias

Independent variables

The factor that the researcher deliberately changes, controls, or manipulates to test its effects on another factor

Confounding variables

An outside or third factor in a study that links to both the independent variable and the dependent variable

Dependent variables

The outcome or response that the researcher measures

Random assignment

A method used in experiments to place participants into groups, such as an experimental group or a control group, by pure chance

Case study

An in-depth study of a real-world subject, like a person, group, or business

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the size and direction of a relationship between two or more variables

Positive correlation

A relationship where two factors move in the same direction

Negative correlation

An inverse relationship where as one variable increases, the other variable decreases

Meta-analysis

A statistical method that combines the results of many different studies on the same topic

Naturalistic observation

A research method where scientists watch and study humans or animals in their real, everyday environments without change or controlling any variables

Hypothesis

A tentative, testable prediction or explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem

Falsifiable

If something can be proven wrong by an observation, test, or experiment

Operational definitions

A clear, precise explanation of how an abstract concept or variable will be measured, observed, or manipulated within a specific study

Replication

The process of repeating a study or experiment to see if the same results occur again

Central tendency

A single summary value that represents the middle or typical point of a data set

Variation

The natural differences, diversity, or spread of traits, behaviors, and data scores amoung individuals or group

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores in a reference group or norm population that fall below a specific test score

Mean

The mathematical average of a set of scores or data points

Median

A measure of central tendency that identifies the middle score or exact 50th percentile in a set of data arranged in numerical order

Mode

A measure of central tendency defined as the value or score that appears most frequently in a given data set

Positive skew

A data pattern where most research scores or values cluster at the lower end of a scale

Negative skew

A data pattern where most test scores or responses cluster at the high, right side of a graph, while a small number of low scores stretch out in a long tail to the left

Biodomal distribution

A data set or frequency graph with two instinct peaks (modes)

Standard deviation

A descriptive statistics that measures how much individual participant scores spread out from the group average (the mean)

Regression towards the mean

A statistical principle showing that an extreme score or event is likely to be followed by a more average one

Sample

A smaller group of people chosen from a larger target population to take part in a study

Population

The complete group of people or animals that a researcher wants to study

Representative sampling

A small group that accurately matches the key traits of a larger population

Random sampling

A research method where a smaller group (the sample) is chosen purely by chance from a larger group (the population)

Convenience sampling

A non-probability sampling method where researchers choose participants because they are easier to reach, nearby, and available

Generalizing

Making a broad statement or rule based on a few specific examples or observations

Experimental group

The set of test subjects that receives the specific treatment, intervention, or changed variable being tested in a scientific study

Control group

A standard baseline in an experiment

Placebo

A fake treatment, such as a sugar pill or salt water injection, that has no active medicine or physical effect

Placebo effect

When a person’s health improves after they receive a fake treatment, like a sugar pill or saline injection, because they believe its real

Single-blind study

An experiment where the people taking part do not know if they get the real treatment or the fake one, but the researchers do

Double-blind study

A research design where neither the participants nor researchers interacting with them know who receives the act treatment and who receives a placebo

Experiment bias

Happens when a researchers own hopes, beliefs, or wishes accidentally change the results of a study

Social desirability bias

The tendency of people to give answers that look good to others instead of telling the truth

Qualitative research/measures

Focuses on collecting and analyzing non-numerical data like words, images, or behaviors to understand deep meanings, opinions, and experiments

Structured interviews