The Baroque Era: People, Pieces, and Publications

L’Euridice

The oldest surviving opera, by Jacopo Peri and Giulio Caccini, which was performed in 1600, marking the birth of opera.

Le Nuove Musiche (“The New Music”)

A publication by Giulio Caccini containing madrigals and arias (for solo voice and continuo), advice on how to ornament and embellish vocal lines, as well as musical examples and prose descriptions of monody. These all illustrate the newly emerging musical texture, the “expressive style.”

Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643)

The most important composer of early Italian opera, who in his musical style embraced Baroque elements (figured bass, major-minor tonality, monody, and “doctrine of affections“) while still maintaining respect for the traditions of Renaissance polyphony; he used chromaticism as an expressive device; he increased emotional intensity through the use of stile concitato, and he used word painting in madrigals and operas.

His contributions include increasing the role of ensembles; establishing the love duet; differentiating between recitative and aria in later opera; and expanding the role of instruments to create moods and define characters, specifying instrumentation in his scores for this end (which contributed to the development of orchestration).

L’Orfeo (1607)

An Italian opera written by Alessandro Striggio, and composed by Claudio Monteverdi. It is based on Greek mythology and includes a prologue and 5 acts.

The work demonstrates the new and defining monodic style of early Baroque opera in Tu se’morta, and the use of chorus and word painting in Ahi, caso acerbo.

Henry Purcell (1659-1695)

The most significant composer of early English opera, as well as an organist, singer, and prolific composer, who:

• Incorporated many elements of Baroque style in his music (including major- minor tonality, figured bass, ground bass, sequential repetition, and ornamentation);

• Combined elements of various national styles by embracing the influence of lyric arias (Italian), ornamentation and French overture (French), and Renaissance madrigal and choral tradition (English);

• Effectively uses word painting; and

• Wrote virtuoso idiomatic works, as seen in his keyboard suites.

He wrote with compelling lyricism and became known as the “British Orpheus.”

Dido and Aeneas (1689)

A brief English opera consisting of three acts, written by Nahum Tate, and based on the epic poem Aeneid by Virgil. It fuses the dynamic string writing of the Italian tradition with the regal character of the French overture, and the lyricism of the English vocal tradition.

Dido’s lament employs word painting, chromaticism, and is a recitative. When I am laid in earth is an aria with ground bass. With drooping wings is a chorus (4-part texture) softening the dramatic intensity of the movement and providing a contemplative conclusion to the work as a whole.

George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)

A German-born composer, who lived and worked in Italy before settling in London, who was an important figure in shaping the development of Italian opera in England, championing in particular opera seria (40+ works).

He was a cosmopolitan composer with French, German, and English influence, and had an accessible and appealing style due to his use a very basic musical elements (chordal passages, scale figures). He frequently alternates homorhythmic passages with contrapuntal textures, and conveys a sense of pageantry and dramatic theatrical style through grandiose gestures (example SATB choral sound and bold contrast of dynamics).

In addition to contributing to opera, he created the English oratorio (emphasizing the role of the chorus), invented the organ concerto, and contributed to the development of orchestral and keyboard suites.

Musically, his da capo arias were a showcase for vocal virtuosity; he used both recitativo secco and recitativo accompagnato in operas and oratorios; he used vivid word painting; and he had a virtuosic, idiomatic keyboard style.

Giulio Cesare in Egitto (1724)

An opera seria written by Nicola Francesco Haym and composed by Handel, based on ancient Roman history. This opera is comprised almost entirely of expressive, lyrical arias, to display the virtuoso singers who vied for the parts. V’adoro pupille, a da capo aria for soprano and orchestra, features chromaticism in the contrasting minor section, and a brief recitativo secco interruption before the da capo.

Cantata No. 80, Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (1715)

A German chorale composed by J.S. Bach, based on a chorale by Luther and arranged by librettist Salomo Franck. The title translates to “A Mighty Fortress is Our God.” It is in 8 movements, and consists of SATB soloists, SATB chorus, strings, continuo, and pairs of oboes, with trumpets and drums added by Willhelm Friedman Bach.

This work exhibits a wide range of craftsmanship and artistry in its contrapuntal ingenuity, mastery of large architectural structures, vocal lyricism, and word painting, as well as Bach’s personal faith. Words are emphasized through melismatic text setting and chromatic harmony. The movements are ordered in a balanced structure.

Brandenburg Concerto No. 2 in F Major (1721)

A concerto grosso, one of a set of six concertos, dedicated by their composer J.S. Bach, to the margrave of Brandenburg (who never arranged for their performance in his lifetime), which was written for string orchestra and continuo (which play the ripieno); and violin, oboe, recorder, and trumpet (which form the concertino).

This second Concerto has a bright cheerful Affect. The ritornello theme is made up of 4 motives, 1 and 3 built around outline of a tonic triad, and 2 and 4 characterized by scale-type movement. The concertino theme uses sequential imitation and modulates into every closely related key; the soloists take turns presenting the concertino theme, alternating with the ritornello theme. The melody used is often described as Fortspinnung, German for “spinning forward.”

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

Although best to known as an organist in his lifetime, this composer’s works represent the ultimate in Baroque craftsmanship (and the culmination of hundreds of years of polyphonic writing). He did not invent new forms, but perfected all existing ones, and was an especially great master of contrapuntal art, demonstrating ultimate control of polyphonic textures, employed in fugues and other genres (including choral works).

He had a cosmopolitan style of Italian (lyricism like that of operatic arias, and dynamic instrument control), French (dance rhythms, overtures, ornamentation), and English (choral style and dances). His large-scale works were arranged systematically, and he composed in “sets.” He wrote keyboard music for every level, and he wrote sacred works (chorales and cantatas) for the Lutheran Church- and even a Mass in B minor.

Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments (C. P. E. Bach) (1753)

An important primary source documenting Baroque performance practices, including keyboard performance and playing (fingering and figured bass), as well as chapters applying to all instruments (embellishments, improvisation, harmony and counterpoint; as well as general approaches to performance and musicianship).

This work was part of the “Age of Enlightenment,” when writers, philosophers, poets, and musicians sought to amass their knowledge systematically in written form.

Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764)

One of the most admired French composers of the late Baroque era, as well as a brilliant organist and harpsichordist, who developed the French keyboard suite, initially along traditional lines but then later by incorporating imaginative character pieces inspired by the suites of François Couperin.

The musical style of his keyboard texture features a strong harmonic direction, frequent use of seventh chords, clear modulation schemes, precisely notated embellishments (agréments), and an occasional use of counterpoint. He employed binary and rondeau forms, and his later keyboard works include virtuosic technical demands and formal procedures that show the influence of Handel and Scarlatti.

He was born in Dijon and in 1722 published his Traité de l’harmonie, establishing the groundwork for the study of functional harmony, a work which is still valid today.

La poule (from “Nouvelle suites de pièces de clavecin”) (ca 1729) (Jean-Philippe Rameau)

A piece from a suite which was written for the harpsichord, is in binary form, and has playful and lively affect. The opening motive consists of a series of repeated notes which imitates the clucking of a hen. It is not a dance of traditional form, but, through the hen imagery, is a character piece.

Water Music Suite in D Major (1717)

An orchestral suite composed by Handel with a structure of 22 movements, arranged in 3 suites written for Baroque orchestra (strings, continuo, trumpets, horn, oboes, and bassoons).