POLSCI 1AA3: Government, Politics, and Power Midterm Review

Key Terms/Concepts:

Who gets what, when, and how:

It means that politics is about how power and resources are distributed in society — deciding who benefits, when they benefit, and by what process or rules. Who gets what, when and how.

Political questions:

-  What values do decisions serve? We hope they serve justice and society to protect society

-  Who makes the decisions? Is it one person many people or all people

-  How are the decisions enforced?

The state:

a set of institutions which has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force over a population, people accept the state as the legitimate authority

Direct Democracy

is a form of governance that lies directly in the hands of the people being affected by its use. All citizens engage in political decisions, making the rules and regulations rather than politicians who have been elected.

Liberal Democracy

Officials are elected by citizens, a person representing other people’s interests.

One-party Democracy:

A government where the country is ruled by a single political party and only one political party exists the formation of other ones is forbidden

Democratic Elitism:

A theory that democracy works by allowing citizens to elect leaders, but the most important decisions remain in the hands of a small, knowledgeable political elite

Participatory Democracy:  

A model that values broad citizen involvement in political decision-making, seeing participation as essential for empowerment and stronger democratic outcomes.

Classical Liberalism

developed in the 17th–19th centuries during the rise of capitalism and industrial society. It promoted limited government, individual freedom, and private property as essential to progress. Thinkers like John Lockeargued that people have natural rights — life, liberty, and property — that governments must protect. Classical liberals believed in negative freedom, meaning people should be free from government interference. Economically, they supported laissez-faire capitalism (Adam Smith), where competition and self-interest naturally create prosperity. Overall, classical liberalism trusted that rational individuals could make their own choices without heavy state control.

Reform Liberalism:

Modern or reform liberalism emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a response to industrial inequality and the problems caused by unregulated capitalism. It kept the liberal belief in freedom and individual rights, but added that true freedom depends on having fair social and economic conditions — called positive freedom. Thinkers like T.H. Green and John Stuart Mill argued that the state should help remove barriers such as poverty, unemployment, and discrimination. Modern liberals support a welfare state and government regulation to ensure equality of opportunity. Overall, it combines personal freedom with a belief in social responsibility and collective well-being

Individualism

is the belief that every person is unique, rational, and capable of making their own choices. Liberalism sees the individual — not the group, class, or community — as the foundation of society. Each person has the right to decide what the “good life” means for themselves, as long as their actions don’t harm others. However, liberals also believe in social responsibility — that people should help those who cannot help themselves. This creates a key tension in liberal thought: balancing individual freedom and uniqueness with equality and moral duty toward others.

Freedom

Freedom is the core value of liberalism and the foundation of its moral and political ideas. Liberals believe people should be free to make their own choices and pursue their goals so they can reach their full potential. However, freedom is not unlimited — it can only be restricted to prevent harm to others, as explained by John Stuart Mill’s harm principle. Freedom allows individuals to express themselves, grow, and take part in society and the economy. In short, liberalism sees freedom as both a basic human right and a requirement for progress.

Negative and Positive Freedom/ Rights

Liberalism identifies two main types of freedom. Negative freedom means being free from outside control — having no interference from the government or others. It was supported by classical liberals, who believed people should be left alone to make their own choices. Positive freedom means being free to act — to reach your potential and live a meaningful life — which often requires things like education, healthcare, and fair opportunities. Modern liberalsargue that the government should help create these conditions so everyone can truly use their freedom. Together, these ideas show how liberalism balances individual independence with social support.

Reason

Liberals believe that people are rational and capable of using reason to make good decisions and improve society. Through reason, individuals can solve problems, settle disagreements through debate, and achieve progress through reform instead of violence. This belief in logic and discussion forms the basis of liberal democracy and the rule of law. According to liberalism, force should only be used as a last resort, such as in self-defence or to stop oppression. Overall, reason is both a moral guide and a method for creating a fair, peaceful, and progressive society.

Justice

In liberalism, justice is based on fairness, equality, and moral worth. Every person deserves equal respect and fair treatment — whether through legal rights, fair pay, or political participation. Liberals support legal equality (everyone is equal before the law) and political equality (one person, one vote). However, they accept that people may achieve different outcomes because of differences in talent and effort. What matters most is that everyone has equal opportunity to succeed. Liberal justice combines fairness and merit, ensuring rewards are earned through hard work within an equal legal system.

Equality of Opportunity

Equality of opportunity is the liberal idea that everyone should have the same starting chances in life, no matter their background or social class. It rejects systems based on privilege or inheritance, believing that hard work and meritshould determine success. Liberals accept that outcomes will differ, but they believe the playing field should be fair and level. This idea supports things like equal access to education, fair laws, and anti-discrimination policies. Overall, equality of opportunity balances freedom and fairness, allowing social mobility without forcing everyone to be the same

Toleration

Toleration is the liberal belief in accepting and protecting different moral, cultural, and political views — even those we disagree with. It is captured by Voltaire’s quote: “I detest what you say, but will defend to the death your right to say it.” Liberals see freedom of speech and conscience as essential to democracy. Toleration is based on the idea that individuals are independent thinkers capable of forming their own beliefs. By encouraging open debate and respecting diversity, toleration helps prevent tyranny and creates a free, pluralistic society.

Natural Rights:

Natural rights are basic rights that all humans are born with, such as life, liberty, and property — ideas developed by John Locke. These rights are universal (apply to everyone) and inalienable (cannot be taken away by any government). Locke argued that the main purpose of the state is to protect these rights, and if it fails to do so, citizens have the right to challenge or replace it. Modern democracies reflect this through human rights laws and constitutional protections. Natural rights are the moral foundation of both classical and modern liberalism.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is a moral and political philosophy linked to Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. It teaches that an action or policy is right if it brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. Instead of judging by intentions, utilitarianism focuses on results and overall well-being. Bentham believed people are motivated by pleasure and pain, so laws and policies should increase happiness and reduce suffering. This idea influenced liberalism by supporting governments that aim to improve social welfare and collective happiness.

Economic Liberalism

Economic liberalism, rooted in Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations (1776), supports free markets, private business, and little government interference. It’s based on the idea that when individuals act in their own self-interest, they unintentionally create benefits for society — guided by the “invisible hand” of the market. It values competition, efficiency, and personal responsibility, believing these lead to progress and prosperity. Government control is seen as a threat to freedom and market balance. This approach later developed into neoliberalism, which still influences modern capitalist economies.

Laissez–faire:  

Laissez-faire is a French term meaning “let do” or “leave alone.” It reflects the belief that the economy works best when the government does not interfere. Rooted in classical liberalism, it assumes that supply and demand will naturally balance through the free market. Supporters argue that government control hurts competition and limits freedom. Laissez-faire emphasizes free trade, private property, and entrepreneurship, and it remains a core idea of capitalismand liberal economic thought.

Social Darwinism:

Social Darwinism applies Charles Darwin’s idea of “survival of the fittest” to society and the economy. It claims that competition naturally rewards the most capable people, and that inequality reflects individual talent and effort. Some classical liberals used it to argue against welfare, believing people should succeed or fail on their own. However, critics say it ignores social disadvantages and can promote classism or lack of compassion. In political science, it represents an extreme, individualist form of liberalism that prioritizes competition over equality.

The Tyranny of the Majority:

The tyranny of the majority, a concept by John Stuart Mill, warns that even in democracies, the majority can oppress minorities or restrict individual freedoms. Social pressure and public opinion can become harmful when conformity replaces diversity. Liberalism stresses the need to protect individual rights from both government power and majority rule. Safeguards like constitutional rights, free speech, and judicial review help prevent this kind of tyranny. The idea remains important in discussions about democracy and civil liberties

Social Liberalism

Social liberalism developed in the 20th century and focuses on the idea that real freedom requires equality and support from the state. It believes the government should provide healthcare, education, and social programs so everyone has a fair chance to succeed. Social liberals see freedom not just as being left alone, but as having real opportunities to live well. This view combines individual liberty with social responsibility, forming the basis of the welfare state and the idea that democracy should protect both rights and well-being.

Economic Management:

Economic management is a modern liberal idea developed by John Maynard Keynes, who believed governments should regulate the economy to avoid unemployment and financial crises. During the Great Depression, he argued that public spending and government policies could boost demand and keep markets stable. This approach replaced strict laissez-faire economics with a mixed economy, where both businesses and the government play a role. It shows liberalism’s flexibility — using state action to maintain economic stability and social well-being while still supporting capitalism and freedom.

Tradition

In conservatism, tradition means respecting the past and keeping long-standing customs, institutions, and values. Conservatives believe these traditions hold wisdom because they have proven stable over time. Thinker Edmund Burke said society is a partnership between “those who are living, those who are dead, and those yet to be born,” showing how tradition connects generations. It gives people identity, belonging, and stability. Because of this, conservatives see sudden change or revolution as risky and harmful to social order.

Human Imperfection:

Conservatives believe that humans are naturally flawed and not perfectly rational. People are driven by emotions, self-interest, and moral weakness, so society needs rules and structure to stay stable. They reject the liberal idea that people can be perfected through reason or better social conditions. Because humans make mistakes, conservatives value law, order, and strong institutions to guide behavior. Problems like crime are seen as individual moral failings, not just results of poverty or environment.

Organic Society:

Conservatives see society as an organic whole, meaning it works like a living body where every part depends on the others. Each person has a role within families, communities, and institutions that keep society stable. If one part changes too quickly or is removed, the whole system can be harmed. This belief promotes loyalty, duty, and belonging, rejecting the liberal idea that people are just independent individuals. The organic view supports gradual change and stability to protect social harmony.

Little Platoons:

Edmund Burke’s idea of “little platoons” refers to the small, local groups that make up society — like families, churches, and community organizations. These groups share power and responsibility, helping prevent the government from becoming too centralized or controlling. Conservatives believe these smaller communities are vital for teaching morals, building character, and creating social stability. Instead of depending on the state, people find purpose and belonging through these local connections and traditions.

Hierarchy

Conservatives believe hierarchy is natural and necessary for a stable society. People have different skills, talents, and responsibilities, so complete equality isn’t possible or desirable. A hierarchy provides clear roles and authority, which helps maintain order. Those at the top have a duty to act responsibly and care for others, a belief called noblesse oblige. This system creates mutual respect and stability, keeping society united and balanced.

Authority

Conservatives see authority as the foundation of order and good government. It gives people direction, discipline, and stability, helping them live within moral and social boundaries. True authority, conservatives argue, should come naturally from tradition, experience, and trusted institutions, not from abstract ideas. People are more likely to respect and follow authority when it’s based on history and legitimacy. Without authority, society could fall into chaos, conflict, or moral decline.

Property

In conservatism, property has strong moral and social importance. Owning property gives people security, independence, and responsibility, helping them care for their community. It connects generations and represents stability and continuity in society. Conservatives believe protecting property is vital because it prevents envy, maintains order, and reduces reliance on the state. Property also builds social bonds, as people share a common interest in preserving and improving what they own.

Traditional Conservatism/Toryism:

Traditional conservatism, also known as Toryism or paternalistic conservatism, focuses on order, duty, and gradual change. It comes from Edmund Burke’s idea that a society must allow some change to survive and stay stable. Toryism supports hierarchy, but believes privilege brings responsibility. Thinker Benjamin Disraeli promoted noblesse oblige, meaning the rich and powerful should help the poor to avoid social conflict. In countries like Britain and Canada, Toryism influenced politics by emphasizing stability, community, and moral leadership.

Noblesse Oblige

Noblesse oblige is a French phrase meaning “nobility obliges.” It reflects the conservative belief that people with wealth, power, or high status have a moral duty to care for those with less. Thinkers like Benjamin Disraeli used this idea to support social reforms and welfare programs within a hierarchical society. It helps keep social harmony by making sure privilege comes with responsibility and kindness. Noblesse oblige represents the Tory belief that true leadership should serve the community, not exploit it.

Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism is a modern form of conservatism that brings back classical liberal economic ideas. It believes that free markets, not governments, manage resources most effectively — summed up by the phrase “private good, public bad.”Neoliberals support privatization, deregulation, and less government control to encourage competition and individual freedom. However, they still want a strong state to maintain law, order, and market rules. Neoliberalism mixes economic freedom with moral conservatism and has become a major influence in Western politics today.

Neoconservatism

originated in the United States in the 1970s as a reaction against the liberal social movements of the 1960s. It emphasizes moral order, patriotism, and strong leadership. Neoconservatives share neoliberals’ belief in free markets but reject cultural permissiveness and relativism, arguing that social order depends on traditional moral values. They support a powerful state to enforce authority, combat crime, and defend national interests, sometimes with nationalist or xenophobic undertones. Neoconservatism thus combines economic liberalism with cultural authoritarianism

Authoritarian Populism

Authoritarian populism is a modern form of conservatism that combines strong nationalism with centralized, powerful leadership. It claims that “the people” have been betrayed by corrupt elites and promises to restore orderthrough tough authority. This approach appeals more to emotion than reason, focusing on law, order, and national pride instead of diversity or tolerance. It continues older forms of authoritarian conservatism but reshapes them for modern populist politics in the 21st century.

Socialism

Socialism is a political and economic belief that opposes capitalism and aims to create greater equality, fairness, and collective well-being. It began as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, which caused poverty and inequality through private ownership and competition. Socialists believe society should be based on cooperation and community, not profit and rivalry. They support equality of outcome, saying real freedom exists only when everyone’s basic needs are met. Some socialists want to replace capitalism completely, while others — like social democrats — want to reform itthrough welfare programs and government action.

Community

Socialists see humans as inherently social beings who thrive through cooperation and belonging. Unlike liberal individualism, socialism views individuals as inseparable from the social groups and communities they belong to. Human nature is not fixed but shaped by social circumstances — it is socially constructed. The community, therefore, provides both identity and moral guidance. Socialists believe collective decision-making and shared responsibility can achieve common goals more effectively than competition, fostering solidarity and mutual care

Cooperation

is a core socialist principle based on the belief that humans are motivated not only by material gain but also by moral and social incentives. People have a natural desire to contribute to the common good and support one another. Socialists argue that society functions best when production and work are organized cooperatively rather than competitively. Historically, this belief led to the growth of worker cooperatives and trade unions as alternatives to capitalist enterprises. Cooperation replaces the capitalist focus on rivalry with collective progress

Equality

is the defining value of socialism and the key feature that unites all its forms. Socialists prioritize equality of outcome, believing that inequalities stem from unjust social and economic structures, not from natural differences. True freedom, they argue, exists only when everyone’s basic needs — such as food, housing, and security — are met as human rights. Formal legal equality is insufficient if material inequality persists, since unequal circumstances limit real opportunity. By promoting equality, socialism aims to build social cohesion, justice, and solidarity among citizens

Class Politics

is the belief that social class is the most significant source of political conflict and identity. Socialists see capitalist society as divided between classes — those who own the means of production and those who sell their labour. The goal of socialism is to reduce or eliminate class divisions by redistributing wealth and democratizing the economy. Marxists define class in terms of one’s relationship to production (owners vs. workers), while social democrats focus on income and status differences. Class politics highlights how inequality creates exploitation and social tension

Bourgeoisie and Proletariat:

These are the two main classes identified by Karl Marx in capitalist society. The bourgeoisie are the owners of the means of production — factories, land, and capital — who profit from the labour of others. The proletariat are the working class who sell their labour to survive. Marx argued that capitalism is based on exploitation, as workers create value that is taken by owners as profit — the “extraction of surplus value.” This conflict drives class struggle and, ultimately, revolutionary change toward a classless society

Neo-Marxism:

is a modern reinterpretation of Marx’s ideas that emerged after the failure of predicted revolutions and the rise of totalitarian communism. Thinkers like Antonio Gramsci expanded Marxism beyond economics to include culture and ideology. Neo-Marxists argue that capitalist power persists not only through economic control but also through hegemony— the dominance of ruling-class values and norms that make inequality appear natural. By shaping culture, media, and education, elites maintain consent rather than relying solely on force. Neo-Marxism thus connects class power to cultural and ideological control

Hegemony

a term developed by Antonio Gramsci, refers to the ruling class’s ability to maintain power by shaping cultural values, beliefs, and “common sense.” Instead of using violence or coercion, elites secure consent by persuading people to accept the status quo as natural and beneficial. Through institutions like schools, media, and religion, dominant ideas become widely accepted, making resistance less likely. Hegemony explains how capitalist societies maintain stability even when economic inequality is high — power operates as much through ideology as through economics

Social Democracy:

is a reformist branch of socialism that aims to balance capitalism with social justice. Emerging in the early 20th century, it supports a mixed economy combining market competition with strong state intervention to ensure equality and welfare. Social democrats advocate for redistributive taxation, universal healthcare, workers’ rights, and public ownership of key industries — the “commanding heights” of the economy. Unlike revolutionary socialism, it seeks gradual reform rather than overthrowing capitalism. The goal is to humanize capitalism, promote full employment, and achieve a just distribution of wealth

Christian Socialism:

links socialist principles with Christian ethics of compassion, equality, and service. It is based on the belief in universal brotherhood — the idea that all people are equal in the eyes of God — and that love of one’s neighbour requires addressing social injustice. Christian socialists emphasize moral and spiritual motivations for cooperation over material gain. They advocate social reform, community responsibility, and care for the poor as expressions of faith. In Canada, early socialist movements like the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) drew heavily on Christian socialist values

Shallow ecology and deep ecology:

Shallow ecology focuses on environmental protection primarily to serve human needs. It promotes conservation and sustainable use of resources so that humanity can continue to thrive. Deep ecology, by contrast, rejects human superiority and argues that all living beings have intrinsic value, regardless of their usefulness to humans. Deep ecologists believe humans must fundamentally change their relationship with nature, seeing themselves as one species among many rather than the centre of the planet’s ecosystem. Together, these approaches illustrate two levels of environmental ethics — reformist versus radical

The arrogance of humanism:

refers to humanity’s mistaken belief that it is the master of nature. Green theorists argue that this mindset — reinforced by industrialization, science, and capitalism — has led to ecological destruction. Humans have exploited natural systems for short-term gain, ignoring that ecosystems are complex and self-regulating. Ecologism rejects this anthropocentrism, urging a humbler view of humanity as part of, not above, nature. Recognizing interdependence, not dominance, is essential for ecological balance and survival

 

Ecosystems

is a network of living and nonliving elements that interact and depend on each other for balance and survival. Green political theory uses the ecosystem model to demonstrate how all species, including humans, are part of a self-regulating natural system that tends toward equilibrium. Disrupting one part of the system — through pollution, deforestation, or overconsumption — affects all others. Understanding ecosystems requires seeing the world holistically and respecting the limits of nature’s ability to sustain human activity

Systems Thinking:

is the ecological approach to understanding the world as an interconnected whole rather than as separate parts. It argues that political, economic, and natural systems are interdependent, meaning no issue can be solved in isolation. Green politics uses systems thinking to critique industrial capitalism, which treats nature as a resource rather than a partner. By recognizing relationships and feedback loops within ecosystems, systems thinking promotes more sustainable and integrated decision-making

Holism

is the idea that nature and society can only be understood as complete systems rather than as isolated parts. Green theorists argue that humans must see themselves as part of the natural world rather than as its rulers. Every part of the environment gains meaning only in relation to the whole — damaging one element harms the entire system. Holism therefore encourages ecological consciousness, urging policies that preserve balance, interdependence, and the unity of life on Earth

Spaceship Earth:

is a metaphor used in green politics to illustrate that the Earth’s resources are finite and must be carefully managed. Like a spaceship, Earth is a closed system with limited supplies that depend on external inputs (such as the sun) to sustain life. Industrial society, however, acts as if these resources are unlimited, leading to waste and decay. The concept warns that humanity must adopt sustainable practices to maintain the planet’s ecological systems and ensure collective survival

The Tragedy of the Commons:

describes how shared resources are overused and depleted when individuals act in their own self-interest. In pre-industrial times, common lands allowed communities to meet basic needs, but without regulation, such resources become exploited to the point of collapse. Green theorists use this idea to explain modern environmental crises like overfishing, deforestation, and pollution. It demonstrates that collective restraint and stewardship are essential to sustain global resources. Coined by Garrett Hardin

From Having To Being:

This concept calls for a cultural shift away from materialism (“having”) toward inner fulfillment and well-being (“being”). Ecologism argues that consumerism — equating happiness with possessions — leads to psychological dissatisfaction, inequality, and environmental harm. Instead, green thinkers promote values like mindfulness, simplicity, and connection with nature. True happiness, they argue, comes from meaningful experiences, relationships, and balance with the environment, not endless consumption

The people:

In populist discourse, “the people” are portrayed as morally good, wise, and united by shared struggles or traditions. They are seen as the true source of political legitimacy and power. However, “the people” can be defined inclusively (as citizens) or exclusively (as a nation or ethnic group), depending on the form populism takes. The concept appeals emotionally to belonging and authenticity, setting up a conflict between ordinary citizens and self-serving elites

 

The Elite:

refers to the small group of political, economic, or cultural actors portrayed as corrupt and disconnected from ordinary citizens. Populist movements position elites as the enemies of the people — accused of hoarding wealth, power, and influence. The elite may include politicians, big businesses, bureaucrats, or media institutions. This opposition fuels populist calls to restore power to “the people” and challenge established institutions

Populist Democracy:

is a form of politics that claims to return authority directly to the people, often through charismatic leadership and mass mobilization. Supporters argue it corrects the failures of liberal democracy by giving a stronger voice to marginalized groups. However, in practice, populist democracy can erode democratic norms when it concentrates power in one leader or movement. While it celebrates majority rule, it often shows limited respect for minority rights or institutional checks and balances

Illiberal Democracy

democracy refers to political systems that hold regular elections but undermine liberal principles such as individual rights, freedom of expression, and judicial independence. Leaders may claim democratic legitimacy through popular support while restricting opposition or civil liberties. This form of governance retains the appearance of democracy but rejects pluralism and rule of law. It illustrates how populist regimes can erode democratic structures from within while still appealing to “the people

Democratization of Democracy

is the idea of deepening and expanding democratic participation beyond traditional voting. Green and radical theorists argue that true democracy requires inclusive, participatory decision-making at every level of society — from workplaces to communities. It emphasizes transparency, equality, and environmental responsibility in political life. This concept challenges both elitist politics and shallow populism, calling for a more participatory, grassroots, and accountable democratic system