Art History: Chapter 10 - Roman Art to 330 AD

Republic Period (509 - 31 BC)

• Republic: Power held by citizens to elect leaders

• Conquered Italy, including places near the Mediterranean Sea & Atlantic Ocean

• Development of temples influenced from Greece

• Rose against Caesar, which began a period of civil war

• Battle of Actium, Octavian defeats Mark Anthony & Cleopatra the 7th

• Octavian renames himself as Caesar Augustus, meaning exalted and sacred

• Many Roman sculpture depicted political figures and military leaders

The Orater

Visual

• Made of bronze

• Depicts lifesized figure stretching his hand out

• Is naturalistic and realistic, with wrinkes on his forehead

• Neatly folded toga and boots

• Inscription of “To (or from) Auli Meteli”

Iconographic

• Part of Roman Republic

• Age = wisdom

• Common features and clothing show he’s an everyday guy

• Inscription shows he’s a votive for dieties

• Made by Etruscan metalsmith

• Used as propaganda to ensure the government was working for citizen’s interests

• Showed officials as strong leaders, instilling trust in government capabilities

Capitoline Wolf

Visual

• Made of bronze with eyes painted in ivory

• Depicts 2 infants and a wolf

• Are naturalistic, freestanding, and carved in the round

• Infants are in dynamic poses

Iconographic

• Part of Roman Republic

• Named after Capitoline Museum

• Figures are Romulus and Remus, who’re abandoned until a she-wolf allows them to suckle for food

• Made using lost-wax casting method

• Wolf is Roman symbol

• Discovered that the lost-wax casting was done in the Middle Ages

• Unknown if the wolf is ancient

Capitoline Brutus

Visual

• Made of bronze with eyes painted in ivory

• A portrait bust

• Depicts a naturalistic male figure

• Brows pushed together, tight jaw, and persed lips show resoluteness

• Head inclines downward slightly

Iconographic

• Part of Roman Republic

• Only original part is the head

• Most likely depicting Brutus, the founder of Roman Republic

• Was possibly once part of an equistrian sculpture

• Likely meant to commemorate an individual

• Is meant to look intelligent as wisdom was important for political leadership

Elder of Sccuppito

Visual

• Made of marble

• Is a portrait head

• Is veristic: extreme realism & naturalism

• Figure is very wrinkly and has sagging flesh

Iconographic

• Part of Roman Republic

• Has traces of paint

• Figure was a patrician, which is upper class

• Is influenced by the earlier practice of death masks to commemorate ancestors

• Many were put in atriums of homes as a form of ancestor worship

Head of Elderly Woman

Visual

• Made of marble

• Veristic and idealistic

Iconographic

• Made in Roman Republic

• Traces of paint in hair and eyebrows

• Fashion was important to Roman women

Tomb of the Scipios

Visual

• A subterranean, rock cut tomb

• Consists of irregular chambers and connecting corridors to provide niches for burials

• Front of tomb decorated with a doric frieze and votive scrolls on lid

• Has latin inscription

Iconographic

• Part of Roman Republic

• Scipio Barbatus is the patriach and most prominent occupant of tomb

• Inscription was altered, some of it erased

• Held records of Barbatus’ civic career and military achievements

• Scipios were keen on maintaining family ties and supporting ancestry

• Used for 200 years

• Important example of Late Roman Republic funerary culture

Funerary Procession

Visual

• Made of stone

• Figures are naturalistic

• Depicts male figure resting on a couch with several figures surrounding him

• Are being carried away by 8 pallbearers

• Figure has lively pose, tilted on his left side

• Has chief mourners, paid mourners, and musicians

• Has partial inscription

Iconographic

• Part of Roman Republic

• Inscription suggests tomb was comissioned by a person whose family was formerly of slave origins

• Characteristics of “freedman art"

• Pompas used to reinforce political and social status

• Funerals would hold dramatic displays of mourning, a cleansing of the corpse, then transported to poppa

Mausoleum of the Haterii

Visual

• Made of limestone and marble

• Depicts death of a family matriarch and the family’s source of wealth

• First frieze shows woman on funerary bed surrounded by torches, a musician, and mourning children

• Newly liberated slaves with pileuses (caps)

• Second frieze shows her lounging on couch while children play

Iconographic

• Part of Roman Republic

• Originally found in pieces

• Represents a narrative interplay between death ritual and biography

• Conflation of time as we see matriarch dead and alive

• Pileus is a cap of freedom, referencing the matren’s liberty

• Commissioned by a woman, symbolizing her access to money, which was rare

• Haterii were a family of builders that built their own tombs

• Final resting places provided an opportunity to document ritual observance, and their success in life and commerce

Pont du Gard

Visual

• Made of stone

• Is in aqueduct

• Consists of 3 floors with 52 arches

Iconographic

• Part of Roman Republic

• Built in Nimes, France

• Used to convey water across long distances

• Every person in town able to recieve 100 gallons per day for free

• Proclaims the wealth of Rome, showing its power and prosperity

• Has chiseled grafitti on it

Temple of Portunus

Visual

• Made of marble

• A rectangular building with a small megaron

• Has on-axis approach, high base, and cella with engaged columns

• Also has ionic freestanding columns, friezes, and a pediment

Iconographic

• Part of Roman Republic

• Inspired from Etruscan & Greek temples

• Most likely dedicated to Portunus, the god of harbors and piers

• Uses post and lintel technique

• Reliefs were taken off the friezes

Maison-Carrée

Visual

• Made of limestone

• Consists of friezes, on-axis approach, deep porch, and corithian engaged columns

Iconographic

• Built in Nimes, France

• Etruscan and Greek inspired

Peristyle Garden

Visual

• Consisted of plants, sculptures, and ponds

• Contained rooms with buon fresco paintings

Iconographic

• Built in Pompeii

• Part of House of the Vettii

• Is in the atrium of the house, an open central space enclosed by glass roofs/walls

• Rainwarer was collected in a pond to help with thirst and cooling off

• Allowed light in interior rooms

• Traces of paint

Roman Styles of Painting

• Classified by August Mau

• All paintings are buon fresco

1. Incrustation Style: Depicts imitation marble and other stones; used in Republic

2. Architectural Style: Depicts landscapes and figures; used in Republic & Empire

3. Ornate Style: Depicts flat walls with garlands/borders & scenes; used in Empire

4. Intricate Style: Combination of all; used in Empire

Villa of Mysteries

Visual

• High intensity red hue background

• Depicts several lifesized figures inside an interior space

• Figures are naturalistic and close together as they’re in a tight spcae

Iconographic

• Architectural style

• Shows initiation ritual into Baccus (god of wine/partying) cult, which included whipping

Bedroom One & Two

Visual

• Bedroom One depicts several windows and landscape

• Bedroom Two depicts 4 scenes of landscape and figures separated by 3 columns/pilaster

Iconographic

• Architectural style

• In Room M in Villa of P. Fannius

• Uses 3-point perspective to continuously shift focus throughout the room

Painted Garden

Visual

• Consists of naturalistic trees, plants, and birds

• Consists of a yellow fence and pink-grey fence behind it

• Birds in active poses

Iconographic

• Made in Villa of Livia

• Livia is the wife of Caesar Augustus

• In architectural style

• Room was partially underground, heping to stay cooler

• Uses atmospheric perspective for depth and distance

Villa Poppaea Sabina

Visual

• Depicts imitation marble and other stones on top and bottom

• Depicts columns and windows in various spots

• Depicts flat red panels with various scenes

Iconographic

• Found in Oplontis

• Intricate style

• Built for Poppaea Sabina by Emperor Nero as a retreat

• Represented their welth and status

Ixion Room

Visual

• Depicts imitation marble in the lower, rectangular part

• Depicts an illusion of windows with figures inside of them

• Depicts paintings with garlands and borders

Iconographic

• In House of the Vettii

• Intricate style

• Excavated in 1800s

• Owned by 2 Vettii brothers, who were former slaves that rose to civil office

• Important for liberated slaves to show their accomplishments and status through different styles

Portrait of a Married Couple

Visual

• Figures are naturalistic and realistic

• Depicts two figures close to eachother

• Man is wearing a white toga and holds a scroll

• Woman is holding a clipboard and pen

Iconographic

• In intricate style

• Is Terentius Neo and his wife

• White toga indicates he’s a freeborn or formerly enslaved man

• Found near a bakery complex, so suspected that Terentius was a baker

• Served as a public display of their literacy and wealth

Still Life with Fruit

Visual

• Depicts various fruits in cabinets

• Are naturalistic

Iconographic

• In Villa of P. Fannius Synistor

• Romans invented “Still Life” paintings which disappeared until the Dutch revived it

• After volcanic eruption, many of these paintings were found

• Shows the practice of presenting the hostess gifts

• Category of paintings known as Xenia, meaning hospitality

Two Pitchers and a Bowl

Visual

• Made of glass

• Depicts two pitchers and a bowl (obv)

Iconographic

• Romans known for thier glass, as they adapted the glassblowing technique to mass produce and make it afforadble

• Would use different types of glass

• Became common,everyday objects that replaced ceramics

• Had thinner walls, were translucent, and allowed for more shapes

• High value was placed on colorless, translucent glass because it mimicked rock crystals

Empire Period (31 - 476 AD)

• Julius Caesar extended Rome’s territory

• Senators flee after killing Caesar, and 3 slaves carry his body to his wife

• Mark Anthony had key to treasury and was the general of the military; joined forces with Cleo the 7th

• Both defeated by Octavian (Caesar Augustus) 13 years later

• Coins were a form of propaganda

• Valued idealism over realism

Denarius (Coin)

Visual

• Made of silver

• Depicts a naturalistic and realistic man with wrinkly skin, baggy eyes, and a possibly receding hairline

Iconographic

• Part of Roman Empire

• Is a portrait of Julius Caesar, the first to put his face on a coin

• Reinforces the Roman view that age is a sign of wisdom

• Used to show that he was the absolute ruler, an image constantly visible to the public

Augustus Primaporta

Visual

• Marble copy of a bronze sculpture

• Depicts naturalistic and idealistic figure

• In relaxed contrapposto stance raising his right hand

• Has straight nose, thin lips, and cowlick in hair

• Wearing an armored breastplate

• Tiny figure near his foot riding a dolphin

Iconographic

• Found in estate of Livia

• Is Caesar Augustus

• Inspired by the Doryphoros statue, implying Augustus brought a golden age to Rome

• Cupid’s symbolizes his right to rule because of dietized lieage

• All sculptures made him more youthful (contrast of Republican view)

• Breastplate represents Augustus’ achievements with divine help

• Overall meant to celebrate Augustus’ victory over the Parthians, an enemy that continously beat the Romans

Ara Pacis Augustae

Visual

• Made of marble

• Has an altar

• Lower frieze contains highly decorative relief depicting 50 naturalistic & abstract plant species

• Have symmetrical and linear patterns

• Animal forms are carved deep in the plants

• Sides of the altar is a procession scene, as frieze moves from the back wall up towards the front sides

• Figures face the main entrance

• Figures in front are high relief while back are low relief

Iconographic

• Means “altar of peace”, as it was used to commemorate the peace established by Augustus

• Was reconstructed after fragments were discovered under a palace

• Ordered by Mussolini, who identified himself with Augustus

• Holds political and spiritual signifiance, as Augustus was a priest

• Features Augustus’ family members, ministers, and priests with veils on their heads

Imperial Procession

Visual

• Made of marble

• Figures in front are high relief, while back and low relief

• Consists of several figures with different roles

Iconographic

• On the north and south flanks of the Ara Pacis Augustae

• Possibly depicts a celebration of peace

• North depicts 46 priests and family members

• South depicts Augustus and his immediate family, including Agrippa in a veil

Tellus Panel

Visual

• Made of marble

• Figures are naturalistic and idealistic

• Depicts a woman with clinging drapery

• Depicts two children sitting on her lap offering fruit

• Depicts ox an dsheep at her feet

Iconographic

• On top of the meander at the Ara Pacis Augustae

• Children probably represents the winds of the eart and sea

• Sense of harmony and peace

• Unknown who woman is, but she’s overall a symbol of abundance and fertility

Dioskourides

Visual

• Double-layered sardonyx with gold and gold-plated silver

• A large cameo

• Upper register contains Roma surrounded by Military, Augustus semi-nude holding a scepter, and an eagle near his feet

• Personifications of Oikouemene (civilized world), Oceanus (oceans), and Tellus Italaie (Italy)

• Lower register depicts captive barbarians and victorious Romans

Iconographic

• Private commission by Augustus

• Wasn’t seen by a large audience but still had the same purpose

• Upper focuses on peace, while lower focuses on the wars that helped maintain peace

• Upper register used to symbolize his right of rule, godlike qualities, and devotion to spreading peace through the civilized world

• Overall used as a political message of Augustus’ greatest accomplishment and connection to gods

The Portland Vase

Visual

• Dark cobalt blue and white cameo glass

• Depicts white, naturalistic figures on a blue background

• Wedding of the hero Peleus and Thetis the sea goddess

Iconographic

• An amphora pot

• Used cutting glass technique

• Smashed in 1895, but put together by conservators

• Missing a bottom

• Is an important example of Roman vessels

Flavian Amphitheater

Visual

• Made of marble

• Consists of a complex interior and simple exterior, which is three archades ontop of eachother

Iconographic

• Built on order by Emperor Vespasian

• Symbol of Flavian dynasty’s power

• Marble seats given to the elite while wood seats given to everyone else

• Held several games, executions, and gladiators seen in a theatrical way

• Covered in awning to prevent people from getting wet

• Netting at bottom to protect the emperor

• Called Colossoeum during teh Middle Ages because of the colossal statue next to it

• Emperor Hadrian moved an 100 ft tall sun god next to it

Young Flavian Woman

Visual

• Made of marble

• Idealized face and hair

• Hair pulled forward & upwards into ringlets

Iconographic

• Most likely a woman sculpted in the Flavian style

• Drillwork used to make ringlets

• Hair was very fashionable during teh Flavian era and probably popularized by a woman of teh Emperor’s court

• Owned by Fonseca, who owned it in the 18th century and gave it to the Capitoline Museum

Middle-Aged Flavian Woman

Visual

• More veristic than idealized

• Hair is stylized

• Has baggy eyes and wrinkles

Iconographic

• Eyes and wrinkles show old age

• Due to age, she would’ve been revered and looked up to when this bust was made

Arch of Titus

Visual

• Made of concrete and marble

• Is a freestanding gateway

• Inscription reads “The Senate and Roman people dedicate this to Titus”

Iconographic

• Concrete created by Romans

• Made to commemorate Titus and his borhter, Domitian, in their victory in the Jewish war

• Was once topped with a Bronze Titus on a horse

• Inscription represents propaganda by Emperor Domitian

• Sought to gain favorable public opinion as he rose to power

• Concrete made by mixing lime, pozzolona, and water, then adding rock fragments

• Cladded the concrete with thin marble panels to use less, showing that Rome was on a budget

Spoils from Temple of Jerusalem

Visual

• Depicts spoils of Jerusalem being brought to Rome in a triumphal parade honoring Titus

• Figures are natualistic with an illusion of space as soldiers carry treasure

• Figure on monument is Josephus

Iconographic

• On the Arch of Titus

• Triumphal archs are where emperors would enter with treasure, attendants, soldiers, and prisoners of war

• The general of the losing army would be ceremonially murdered

• Josephus was a Judean general who switched sides during the war

• Spoils were considered holy objects

Column of Trajan

Visual

• Made of marble

• Is a column meant to be on its own

• Is 125 ft tall

• Covered in spiraled relief decoration

• Depicts Trajan victories

Iconographic

• Commissioned by Domitian

• Emperors left their successes to able ministers instead of heirs to ensure continued stability

• Spiraled relief decorations are a reference to scrolls

Romans Crossing the Danube and Building Fort

Visual

• Made of marble

• Depicts Romans crossing the Danube river in the first Dacian War

• Depicts Roman army building a fort

• Figure seen inside the water as Romans cross

Iconographic

• Is the lower band of the Column of Trajan

• Figure is personified version of Dabune (Danubus) to represent the river

• Buildings were solid and well designed, showing how they’re disciplined and accomplished

• Would also clear forests and build roads

Pantheon

Visual

• Made of concrete

• Framed by a colonnade supported by marble bases & has Corithian capitals

• Inside consists of ideal geometric shapes, friezes of false windows, coffers, and an oculus on the dome

Iconographic

• Original bronze fittings are ripped off

• Originally a temple to the gods, then made into a church

• Imported from Egypt, a symbol of Rome’s power over the Mediterranean

• Emperor Hadrian ordered construction of this building

• Coffers used to reduce the dome’s weight for stability

• Originally contained sculptures of gods and dietized emperors, symbolizing the earthly sphere meeting the heavenly sphere

• Oculus represents advanced Roman engineering and architecture, as it’s the perfect circle

Pair of Centaurs Fighting Cats of Prey

Visual

• Made of mosaic, stone, and tesserae (small block of material used in mosacis)

• Naturalistic figures with a sense of depth and foreshortening

• Depicts centaurs fighting with beasts

• Centaur has worried expression as he’s about to hit the tiger, while the animals lack expressions

Iconographic

• Found in Hadrian’s villa as part of a floor mosaic

• Wild beasts would be kept in cages under Colosseums for entertainment and public executions

• Different animals show Rome’s outreach, as tigers, cheetahs, and leopards don’t live in the same area

• Symbol of how Romans saw themselves as separate from the chaos of nature, as we’re made to feel sympathy for the centaur due to its human qualities

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius

Visual

• Made of bronze

• Depicts naturalistic and idealistic man with a Roman toga in Orater pose

• Is a massive statue, but isn’t intimidating

Iconographic

• Originally gilded

• MA was the last good emperor before the Severan dynasty

• Middle Ages assumed this was Constantine, so it wasn’t melted for armor

• Pulled influence from Roman Republic, who prioritized political figures and military leaders

Marcus Aurelius Portraits

Visual

• Made of marble

• Are naturalistic and idealistic

Iconographic

• Used as propaganda of a courageous and reliable leader

• Unlike Augustus, these statues depict his age overtime

• Became emperor at 40, so many depict him as 40 and up, with a beard

Severan Dynasty (193 - 235 AD)

• Marcus Aurelius’ son, Commodus, took over and ensued chaos with his tyrannical rule

• Assasination triggered war, which ended in Septimius Severus being the next emperor

• Was an African emperor who strengthened infrastructure and maintained peace

• Dynasty ends after last emperor is assasinated

Arch of Septimius

Visual

• Made of marble above a tavertine base

• Is a triumphal arch ‘Consists of three bays with coffered barrel vaults

• Forum side has massive freestanding columns with coposite capitals

• Spandrels contain figurative sculpture with military scenes

• Panels narrate the battles and cities that were conquered by Septimius

• Some panels also show emperors in frontal view infront of a crowd

• Has inscription

Iconographic

• I by the Dan Martine Church, the civic and religious center of the Empire

• Arch celebrates the military victory against the Parthians

• Septimius refused the offer of a triumph because he suffered from arthritis

• Panels of emperors infront of crowds express leadership

• Inscription was originally gilded bronze letters and symbolized the power of the Emperor

Severan Coin

Visual

• Made of silver

• Depicts woman with stylized hair consisting of a chignon, ridged waves, and small curl on the cheek

• Is in relief

Iconographic

• Depicts Julia Domna, the wife of MA

• Married while he was a general

• Became first empress of Asia

• Used as propaganda to promote the Severan dynasty and her power as an Empress

Julia Domna

Visual

• Made of marble

• Idealistic and realistic

• Is in exaggerated contraposto stance

• Has wrinkles, a broad forehead, smooth skin, and slight smile

• Visible broken diadem on head

• Holding wheat

• Has a head covering

Iconographic

• Forehead, skin, and smile were the ideal Roman beauty

• Wigs were commonly worn in Rome

• The crimped and braided sections are a way while the curls on teh cheek are natural

• Broken diadem signals divinity

• Wheat associated with Ceres, goddess of agriculture

• Head covering is a sign of piety in religious ceremonies

• Overall symbolizes a goddess essential for Roman prosperity and the feminine virtue of fertility

The Severan Tondo

Visual

• Is tempera on wood

• Depicts naturalistic figures in a family portrait

• Upper right is is Septimius, with long hair and beard

• Upper left is his wife, with pearls around neck and on ears

• Bottom right is Caracalla and left is Geta

Iconographic

• Rare example of the early use of tempera

• Family protraits were a way to project their identity throughout the empire

• Beard and hair are symbol of MA, as Septimius identifies with and calls himself MA’s son

• Geta’s face is scraped away purposfeully

• Due to having Geta murdered and passing laws to erase his memory, as Caracalla waned full power

Caracalla Portrait

Visual

• Made of marble

• Is realistic with furrowed brows and wrinkles

• Has drilled pupils to give more realism

• Has a stern, wary look on his face that gives off paranoia

Iconographic

• Depicts Caracalla

• Became emperor but was later assasinated

Augustae & Caesars

• Generals try to rule with little success

• Diocletian, a politician, establishes peace in 284 AD

• Divides Rome in two parts, each having a co-emperor, to make ruling manageable

• East ruled by Diocletian Augustus and Galerius Caesar

• West is ruled by Maximum Augustus and Constantius Caesar

• Caesars were successors to the Augustae

Portraits of Four Tetrachs

Visual

• Made of porphyry (hard purple stone from Egypt)

• Abstract and stylized

• Depicts four figures clutching each other, possibly afraid

• Have similar, almost identical faces

Iconographic

• Unknown where style came from

• Augustaes have bears, while Caesars don’t, so these are most likely Caesars

Constantine the Great Coin

Visual

• Made of bronze

• Front is naturalistic portrait of Constantine

• Back is chi (x) rho (p) symbol

Iconographic

• Constantine becomes emperor after Caesars take over and fight for power

• Had a vision of the Chi Rho symbol, believing it to be a symbol from teh Christian god

• Ordered it to be put on his soldier’s shields

• Helped to recognize freedom to all religous groups

• Likely used exucse of vision for political move, as he’s well revered by many

• Didn’t convert ot Christianity until deathbed, as Emperors were the head priests and oversaw the state religion

• Died in 337 AD

Colossals of Constantine

Visual

• Made of marble

• An individualized portrait

• Realistic and idealistic with large eyes and stylized hair

Iconographic

• Is now in fragments

• Originally 30 ft tall

• Size and figure are a symbol of power

• Influenced by Egyptian colossal sculptures

Old St. Peters

Visual

• Made of brick, wood, and marble

• Is a Basilica floor plan

• Consist of a nave, aisles, apse, transept, narthax, and atrium

• Has a clerestory

Iconographic

• Commissioned by Constantine

• Clerestory contained a row of windows to let in light
  Was falling apart, so a new on was ordered to be built

• Used spoila, reusing older columns with various marble for new construction