Final Exam Study Guide: Popular Culture and Masculinity in East Asia

How has popular culture influenced the reshaping of masculinity in East Asia?

Popular culture has introduced new ideals of masculinity, such as the 'pretty boy' image and soft, feminized traits, contrasting with traditional masculine ideals.

What is Bishōnen and how does it relate to East Asian masculinity?

Bishōnen refers to the 'pretty boy' image popularized through manga, depicting soft, feminized boys that challenge traditional masculinity.

What is Boys' Love (BL) and its significance in East Asian culture?

Boys' Love is a subgenre of manga created by young women for other young women, focusing on romantic or homoerotic attraction between boys, influencing perceptions of masculinity.

How did J-pop groups like SMAP contribute to the perception of masculinity in the 1990s?

J-pop groups like SMAP promoted a 'nice guy' image with soft looks and boyish charm, contrasting with the dominant masculinity of Western rock bands.

What is the premise of the TV series Otomen?

Otomen features a cool high school boy who secretly enjoys girly activities, emphasizing the concept of 'girly men' in modern masculinity.

How did K-pop bands influence perceptions of masculinity in East Asia?

K-pop bands adopted cute, soft looks that contrasted with Western boy bands, promoting a 'pan-East Asian soft masculinity'.

What economic changes occurred in East Asia from the 1980s to 2010?

Japan became the second-largest economic power after 1978, followed by rapid industrialization in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea, and China's rise as the second-largest economic power by 2010.

How did economic growth affect consumer power in East Asia?

Economic growth increased consumer power among women and youth, facilitated by cheaper internet access and electronic gadgets.

What role did the internet play in the transformation of masculinity in East Asia?

The internet enabled youth to access and spread new cultural products and ideas, contributing to the rise of new masculinity features.

What is **** and its impact on gender norms?

****, a form of Boys' Love, allowed young women to manipulate and reimagine masculinity, challenging traditional patriarchal tropes.

How did postmodernism influence perceptions of masculinity?

Postmodernism questioned established norms, allowing for a broader range of masculine identities to emerge and gain popularity in pop culture.

What are some characteristics of postmodernism?

Postmodernism is characterized by radical shifts in economics, government, technology, and a push against science and rationalism as the primary ways of knowing.

What is the significance of the economic upturn in relation to new masculinity features?

The economic upturn, along with women's increased earning power and leisure time, fueled the rise of genres like BL that challenge traditional gender norms.

What is the relationship between postmodernism and media-driven society?

Postmodernism reflects the rise of multinational corporations and a media-driven society, influencing cultural perceptions and identities.

How did the portrayal of masculinity in manga and anime evolve since the 1970s?

The portrayal evolved to include softer, more feminized characters, influencing young women's perceptions of desirable masculinity.

What were the socio-economic factors contributing to the rise of new masculinity in East Asia?

Factors included economic growth, increased consumer power among women and youth, and technological advancements like the internet.

How did traditional gender norms get challenged in East Asia?

Traditional gender norms were challenged through the popularity of genres like Boys' Love and the emergence of softer masculine ideals in popular culture.

What is the cultural significance of the term 'girly men' in the context of East Asian masculinity?

The term 'girly men' signifies a new acceptance of softer, feminized traits in masculinity, reflecting changing cultural attitudes.

What is the impact of the soft masculinity trend on young Asian women's perceptions?

The trend influenced young Asian women's perceptions of desirability, shifting away from traditional masculine ideals.

How did the globalization of media affect masculinity in East Asia?

Globalization allowed for the exchange of cultural products, leading to the adoption of new masculine ideals across East Asian countries.

What is the significance of the term 'pan-East Asian soft masculinity'?

It refers to a shared cultural phenomenon across East Asia where soft, cute masculinity is embraced, contrasting with Western masculine ideals.

What does postmodernism argue about knowledge systems?

Postmodernism argues that knowledge systems are historically specific and limited, potentially distorting what is considered 'truth'.

How does postmodernism view traditional authority in knowledge systems?

Postmodernism challenges conventional power structures and questions whose voices are allowed to define knowledge.

What impact does postmodernism have on traditional masculinity?

Postmodernism leads to the exploration and validation of softer, unconventional forms of masculinity, allowing for diverse representations in media and pop culture.

What is the conventional gender division of labor in South Korea?

In South Korea, men are typically the breadwinners and women are caregivers, with men expected to financially support the family while women manage the household and childcare.

What is the emerging image of fathers in South Korea?

A new image of caring and hands-on fathers is emerging, accepted only when it does not conflict with their role as breadwinners.

How can some fathers achieve the new image of caring fathers in South Korea?

Fathers can achieve this image when abroad, such as in Singapore, where they take on the role of primary caregiver and justify it through masculine framing.

What are some ways fathers frame their caregiving roles to maintain masculinity?

They frame caregiving as being laid back, maintaining authority while allowing children choices, providing through consumption, and taking on domestic tasks without appearing 'motherly'.

Why are some South Korean fathers in Singapore considered unconventional?

They are considered unconventional because they become primary caregivers, which clashes with their traditional breadwinner identity, but Singapore's environment allows them to engage in caregiving without feeling emasculated.

How do South Korean fathers justify their unconventional roles while in Singapore?

They justify their roles by prioritizing their children's wellbeing and stability over traditional breadwinner expectations.

What was Mr. Yi's reason for stepping into a caregiving role?

Mr. Yi stepped in because his children were struggling and he believed prioritizing their wellbeing was more important than adhering to the breadwinner role.

What motivated Mr. Kim to take on a caregiving role?

Mr. Kim felt compelled to step up for his children due to his wife's illness and the inadequacy of their domestic helper.

What is Mr. Ch'oe's perspective on gender roles in domestic work?

Mr. Ch'oe rejects the division of 'men's work vs. women's work,' believing that if a man is interested in domestic work and it is necessary, he can perform it just as well as a woman.

What is reflexive anthropology?

Reflexive anthropology is the practice of acknowledging how one's own perspective, culture, and experiences shape research, emphasizing that complete objectivity is unrealistic.

How did reflexive anthropology develop?

It began in the 1980s as social sciences and humanities scholars questioned the notion of scientific neutrality, arguing that personal background influences research.

What does reflexive anthropology suggest about research?

It suggests that researchers should remain aware of how their social categories and personal context affect their work.

What is positionality in the context of reflexive anthropology?

Positionality refers to recognizing and being transparent about one's social position (like class or race) and how it influences the research process.

How does positionality enhance research legitimacy?

By acknowledging the human element and power dynamics in research, positionality makes the research more credible and reflective of real-world complexities.

Who is Benedict Anderson and what is his notable work?

Benedict Anderson is an Irish scholar known for his book 'Imagined Communities,' published in 1983.

What is the core idea of Anderson's concept of nations?

Anderson argues that nations are social constructs, imagined political communities rather than tangible entities.

What does Anderson mean by 'imagined' in the context of nations?

It means that individuals feel a connection to their nation even without knowing all its members, creating a sense of shared identity.

What does 'limited' refer to in Anderson's definition of nations?

'Limited' indicates that every nation has defined borders, whether physical or cultural, creating distinctions between 'us' and 'them'.

What does 'sovereign' signify in Anderson's framework?

'Sovereign' signifies that nations have the right to self-governance, independent from external powers.

What does 'community' imply in Anderson's concept of nations?

'Community' implies that nations are imagined as unified groups, fostering a sense of camaraderie, though this is often more about the idea than reality.

How can states, nations, and nation-states be distinguished?

States are political entities with governance, nations are cultural identities, and nation-states are states that coincide with a specific nation.

In what way does Anderson's concept of nation differ from traditional understandings?

Anderson's concept emphasizes that nations are not inherently real but are constructed through shared beliefs and imaginations, contrasting with the idea of nations as fixed entities.

What role does masculinity play in the context of domestic work according to the notes?

Men justify engaging in domestic work by framing it as a necessity, a personal choice, or linked to their role as parents, thus preserving their masculinity.

What is the significance of Mr. Han's perspective on caregiving?

Mr. Han reframes caregiving as a personal choice rather than a gendered obligation, highlighting changing dynamics in family roles.

What does the term 'imagined communities' refer to?

It refers to the concept that nations are socially constructed communities where members feel a connection despite not knowing each other.

How does reflexivity challenge traditional views of social science?

Reflexivity challenges the idea that social science can be completely rational and neutral, asserting that personal biases are always present.

What is the impact of social position on research according to positionality?

Social position can create power imbalances that affect interactions and responses during research, influencing the outcomes.

Why is the concept of 'us vs. them' important in understanding nations?

It highlights the exclusivity of national identity and the criteria for belonging, shaping how citizenship and community are perceived.

What is a parasocial relationship in the context of national identity?

A parasocial relationship refers to the one-sided connection individuals feel towards their nation, based more on the idea of unity than actual interpersonal relationships.

What was the impact of the printing press on national identity?

It standardized language, facilitating the imagination of a shared identity, but also led to a loss of linguistic diversity.

How does Anderson differentiate between a 'nation' and a 'nation-state'?

A 'nation' refers to shared culture/history, while a 'nation-state' combines cultural and political elements, having a centralized government with sovereignty.

How many ethnic groups does China officially recognize?

China officially recognizes 56 ethnic groups.

What percentage of China's population is made up by the Han Chinese?

The Han Chinese make up over 90% of the population.

What is the structure of the National People's Congress in relation to minority representation?

The Congress has 100 seats, with minorities receiving more representation than their population size suggests, but this does not equate to real power.

What are some affirmative action-style policies for minority students in China?

Minority students receive preferential treatment in university admissions and access to economic subsidies for language, education, and cultural events.

What concerns does the Chinese government have regarding minority groups?

The government is paranoid about separation movements and minorities linking with foreign powers.

How do some Han people perceive the affirmative action policies for minorities?

Some Han people view these policies as unfair and see minorities as 'backward' and undeserving of extra support.

What is the historical background of Xinjiang's ethnic composition?

By 1978, the population was 46% Uyghur and 40% Han, but since the 1980s, Han in-migration has increased significantly.

What is the current demographic situation in cities like Urumqi?

In Urumqi, Han Chinese now make up 80% of the population.

What narrative does the Communist Party promote regarding ethnic unity in Xinjiang?

The Party promotes a 'multi-ethnic nation' narrative, claiming everyone is part of one big, happy Chinese family.

What are some slogans used by the Party-State regarding ethnic unity?

Slogans include 'Xinjiang has been an indivisible part of China since ancient times' and 'Ethnic unity is prosperity, ethnic separation is disaster.'

How do real-life interactions in Xinjiang contrast with Party propaganda?

Real-life interactions reveal a lack of unity, contradicting the Party's narrative of a harmonious multi-ethnic society.

What was the status of Uyghurs in relation to Han people historically?

Historically, Uyghurs made up a significant portion of the population, but Han migration has altered this balance.

What do Uyghurs express about their relationship with Han people?

Uyghurs feel that Han and Uyghurs will never share the same heart, viewing the government's unity slogans as superficial.

What is the perception of ethnic unity among Han Chinese in Xinjiang?

Many Han Chinese feel a sense of superiority and believe that ethnic unity is not genuinely felt among different groups.

How does the Chinese government control minority autonomy?

While some autonomy is granted in minority-heavy regions, it remains tightly controlled by the government.

What is the significance of the phrase 'the three unable-to-leaves' in the context of ethnic relations in Xinjiang?

It suggests that no ethnic group can lead others, promoting an illusion of equality that does not reflect people's actual feelings.

What are the implications of the government's narrative on ethnic relations in Xinjiang?

The government's narrative fosters an image of unity, but it often masks underlying tensions and divisions among ethnic groups.

How do Uyghurs view their daily experiences in relation to ethnic unity?

Uyghurs' daily experiences often lead them to feel disconnected from the idea of ethnic unity promoted by the government.

What challenges do minority groups face in terms of rights and representation in China?

Despite some policies aimed at representation and support, minorities often lack real power and face systemic discrimination.

What is the role of government propaganda in shaping perceptions of ethnic identity in China?

Government propaganda aims to create a narrative of harmony and unity, which contrasts with the lived experiences of minority groups.

What do state employees in China often repeat regarding ethnic unity?

They echo the party line that 'Ethnic unity is an ancient tradition' and identify as part of the Chinese minzu.

How do Getihu (small business owners) view Uyghurs in relation to being 'real Chinese'?

They often express skepticism about ethnic unity, stating that even if a Uyghur speaks Chinese, they are not considered 'real Chinese'.

What is a common sentiment among many Uyghurs regarding their identity?

Many Uyghurs do not identify as Chinese and see themselves as Turks, part of Central Asia.

What do Uyghurs think about the propaganda of 'unity is good'?

They often view it as a joke and express skepticism about its sincerity.

What kind of discrimination do Uyghurs face in their daily lives?

They experience everyday discrimination, such as being denied housing or being treated like terrorists.

What feelings do Uyghurs have about Han migrants?

They feel swamped and pushed out, believing that Han migrants have taken good jobs and are assimilating their culture.

What is the bottom line regarding the reality of ethnic unity in Xinjiang?

The party's narrative of 'multi-ethnic unity' contrasts sharply with the lived experiences of Han and Uyghurs, who exist in very different realities.

What is a key characteristic of Japanese aesthetics?

Japanese art emphasizes symbolism over realism, focusing on feelings rather than visual representation.

What does the term 'Mujo' refer to in Japanese aesthetics?

It refers to the beauty found in impermanence and the fleeting nature of life, influenced by Buddhist thought.

What is the significance of 'Shibui' in Japanese aesthetics?

Shibui represents understated beauty that is simple yet complex, appealing to connoisseurs rather than flashy tastes.

What are the Four Noble Truths in Buddhism?

1. Life is suffering. 2. Suffering is caused by attachment. 3. You can end suffering by letting go. 4. There is a path to that end.

What does 'Nirvana' mean in Buddhism?

It is the ultimate goal, representing a state free from clinging and desires, literally meaning 'blowing out the flame'.

How did Zen Buddhism influence Japanese aesthetics?

Zen Buddhism promotes finding beauty in the mundane and emphasizes concepts like emptiness and selflessness.

What is 'Wabi' in the context of Japanese aesthetics?

Wabi refers to finding beauty in simplicity, poverty, and imperfection, emphasizing a sense of freedom from material possessions.

What does 'Sabi' signify in Japanese aesthetics?

Sabi embodies the beauty found in aging and loneliness, accepting that everything wears out over time.

How does the Heian period influence Japanese aesthetics?

The Heian period (8th-12th centuries) established a refined and elegant aesthetic that continues to influence Japanese beauty standards.

What role does nature play in Japanese aesthetics?

Nature is a significant subject, with elements like sakura, pine, bamboo, and plum symbolizing various virtues.

What is the cultural significance of tea ceremonies in relation to Wabi-Sabi?

Tea ceremonies exemplify Wabi-Sabi principles through their sparse, simple design and careful attention to detail.

How was Buddhism received in China before spreading to Japan?

Buddhism was initially met with skepticism but eventually gained acceptance and influenced various aspects of Chinese culture.

What does 'Mushin' refer to in Zen Buddhism?

Mushin denotes a state of selflessness and freedom from thoughts, allowing for a deeper engagement with the present.

What is the relationship between Buddhism and Japanese aesthetics?

Buddhism's teachings on impermanence and simplicity profoundly shape Japanese aesthetic values and artistic expressions.

What is the importance of symbolism in Japanese art?

Symbolism is prioritized over realism, with art focusing on evoking feelings and representing deeper meanings.

How does the concept of elegance manifest in Japanese aesthetics?

Elegance is characterized by sophistication and refinement, particularly evident in the cultural practices of the Heian period.