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Optical Illusions
are perceptions that involve an apparent discrepancy between how an object looks and what it actually is. They are often based on inappropriate assumptions about the stimulus characteristics of the object being perceived.
Carpentered world theory
a theory which suggests that people in urbanized, industrialized societies are used to seeing things that are rectangular in shape and unconsciously come to expect things to have squared corners because much of their world is carpentered (e.g., houses, buildings, etc.).
Mueller-Lyer Illusion
front-horizontal foreshortening theory
a theory which suggests that people interpret vertical lines as horizontal lines extending into the distance.
horizontal–vertical illusion
Symbolizing three dimensions in two theory
a theory which offered to explain cultural differences in visual perception
suggests that people in Western cultures focus more on representations on paper than do people in other cultures—and in particular, spend more time learning to interpret pictures.
cognition
Psychologists use the term _____ to denote all the mental processes we use to transform sensory input into knowledge.
attention, sensation and perception.
Some of the first cognitive processes to consider are ______, ________, and _______.
attention
it refers to the focusing of our limited capacities of consciousness on a particular set of stimuli, more of whose features are noted and processed in more depth than is true of non-focal stimuli.
contours
Pollack and Silvar (1967) showed that the effects of the Mueller-Lyer illusion are related to the ability to detect ______, and this ability declines with age.
Sensation
it refers to the feelings that result from excitation of the sensory receptors (touch, taste, smell, sight, hearing).
similarities ; labels
People categorize on the basis of _______ and attach ____ (words) to groups of objects perceived to have something in common. In so doing, people create categories of objects that share certain characteristics.
Perception
it refers to our initial interpretations of the sensa tions.
human culture
This definition of culture also essentially views culture as a knowledge system—one from which individuals create and derive knowledge about how to live.
This knowledge system—culture—was created by groups to solve complex problems of living and social life, enabling them to survive more functionally and effectively
a unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival, pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life.
That is, they are knowledge representations that include specific meanings and information, translated into norms, opinions, attitudes, values, and beliefs. These in turn are manifested in overt behaviors and the physical elements of culture.
“Cultures themselves are cognitive“ means?
priming
which is a method used to determine if one stimulus affects another.
blind spot
a spot in each eye—a spot with no sensory receptors, where the optic nerve goes through the layer of receptor cells on its way back toward the brain.
microsaccades
refers to micro eye movements, in which our brains fill it in so it looks as if we see everything. It is only when something comes at us out of this spot that we get some idea that something is wrong with our vision in this particular location.
The Mueller-Lyer Illusion
what illusion is this?
The Horizontal-Vertical Illusion
what illusion is this?
The Ponzo Illusion
what illusion is this?
Both assume that the way we see the world is developed over time through our experiences. What we see is a combination of the way the object reflects light to our eyes and our learn ing about how to see things in general.
Second, we live in a three-dimensional world that is projected onto our eyes in two dimensions. Our eyes are nearly flat, and light striking the eye in two places right next to each other may be coming from very different distances. Thus, we need to interpret distance and depth from cues other than where the light falls on the eye.
what does carpentered world theory and front-horizontal foreshortening theory shared common characteristic?
categorization and concept formation
Verbal language is based on ______ and _____; words are merely symbols for objects in our physical environment.
meaningful material
cultural differences in memory as a function of oral tradition may be limited to _______ ______.
the serial position effect
One of the best-known aspects of memory
This effect suggests that we remember things better if they are either the first (primacy effect) or last (recency effect) item in a list of things to remember.
rehearsal; schooling
Wagner (1980) hypothesized that the primacy effect depends on ______—the silent repetition of things you are trying to remember—and that this memory strategy is related to ______.
hindsight bias
Another aspect of memory that studies have found to be universal is in the effect known
refers to the process in which individuals adjust their memory for something after they find out the true outcome.
episodic memory
refers to the recollection of specific events that took place at a particular time and place in the past.
gender stratification hypothesis
Else-Quest, Hyde, and Linn (2010) recently provided evidence for this hypothesis
suggests that gender differences are related to cultural variations in opportunity structures for girls and women.
Problem solving
__________ refers to the process by which we attempt to discover ways of achieving goals that do not seem readily attainable.
creativity
it highlights a universal and unique human process.
is what enables humans and only humans to create art and symphonies, explore space and the sea, and design machines to improve life.
also is what enables humans and only humans to create and improve on weapons of mass destruction and other terrible deeds
hard work; risks; ambiguity and disorder
Creative individuals have been shown to have:
a high capacity for ______,
a willingness to take ____, and
a high tolerance for _____ and _____
countries high on uncertainty avoidance: prefer creative individuals to work through organizational norms, rules, and procedures.
Countries higher on power distance: preferred creative individuals to gain support from those in authority before action is taken, or to build abroad base of support among members for new ideas.
Collectivistic countries: preferred creative people to seek cross-functional support for their efforts.
Thus, although creative individuals may share some common core characteristics across cultures, they need to adapt their abilities to the specific cultural milieu within which they function, particularly in the implementation and adoption of their creative ideas
Shane, Venkataraman, and MacMillan (1995), studied the specific ways in which creativity can be fostered in different cultures.
The authors characterized the countries in terms of Hofstede’s dimensions of individualism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance
priming; mediated; multicultural
intercultural experiences promote growth and creativity,
Maddux and Galinsky (2009) showed that:
time spent living abroad (but not time spent traveling abroad) was positively related with creativity, that _____ foreign living experiences temporarily enhanced creative tendencies for participants who had previously lived abroad,
the degree to which individuals had adapted to different cultures while living abroad ____ the link between foreign living experience and creativity.
the specific ____ learning experiences—learning how and why people of different cultures do what they do—that facilitated improvements in creativity
Dialectical thinking
can be broadly defined as the tendency to accept what seem to be contradictions in thought or beliefs.
it tries to find the way in which both sides of an apparent contradiction are correct, tolerates the contradiction, and tries to find mutual middle ground.
positive logical determinism
it characterizes much of American and Western European think ing.
it tends to see contradictions as mutually exclusive categories, as either-or, yes-no, one-or-the-other types of categories
naïve dialectivism
is a constellation of lay beliefs about the nature of the world (rather than a cognitive style as suggested by dialectical thinking).
characterized by the doctrine of the mean, or the belief that the truth is always somewhere in the middle.
Western lay theories
these are theories that are dominated by the idea that something cannot be both truth and false at the same time, and the belief that all propositions must be either true or false
dialectical thinking
it is a central aspect of the work of the German philosopher Hegel, as well as prominent in the work of writers influential to modern psychology such as Freud and Piaget.
Counterfactual thinking
can be defined as hypothetical beliefs about the past that could have occurred in order to avoid or change a negative outcome.
e.g. “If I had only studied harder.”
are often related to feelings of regret
actions and inactions
two types of Counterfactual thinking
inaction
“If I had only studied harder,” “If I had only been a better parent,” and “If I had only trained harder,” are examples of counterfactual thinking related to _____.
actions
“If I hadn’t said what I said,”“If I didn’t eat that last piece of cake,” and “If I weren’t driving so fast,” are examples of counterfactual thinking of ____.
social orientation hypothesis
According to this hypothesis, cultures differ in independent vs. interdependent social orientation patterns These in turn, influence and affect the ways members of those cultures attend to and think about their worlds
independent social orientations
a type of social orientation that emphasize self direction, autonomy, and self-expression, which fosters a tendency to focus on a single dimension or aspect when categorizing objects or evaluating arguments.
interdependent social orientations
a type of social orientation that emphasize harmony, relatedness, and connection, which in turn fosters a broad attention to context and relation ships in visual attention, categorization, and explaining social behavior.
Human cognitive advancements
___________ enable the creation of human cultures, which are knowledge representations containing specific meanings, norms, opinions, attitudes, values, and beliefs, which influence overt behavior and cultural elements, influencing ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving
