Personality Psych Test 3

Trait

-a consistent pattern in the way individuals behave, feel, and think
-words that describe typically people's styles of experience and action
-stays stable
-broad predispositions people possess

consistency and distinctiveness

"Trait" implies \______ and \_______.

Consistency

-pattern in ways individuals feel, think, behave
-occurs in same way over time
-regularity in behavior and emotional experience

Distinctiveness

-things that make you who you are
-main building blocks/components of one's personality
-aspects of personalities that set us apart from one another

Traits function to:

describe (taxonomy), predict, explain

taxonomy

-describe people's personalities
-taxonomy (method for describing) system is a descriptive system to describe personality
-summarize typical behaviors, what person is like

Predict

-possible to predict what individuals with a personality trait may be like
-people with different levels of a personality trait may differ predictably in their every day behaviors

Explain

\***
-traits can be used to explain a person's behavior
-a person behaves in a certain way because they possess a certain trait
-*not all trait theorists are concerned with this or assert that traits can be explained*

Trait theorists believe....

-everyone has personality traits and those traits predispose us to behave/act in particular ways because our personality is our typical way of engaging with world (thinking, feelings, behaving); believe that inherited biological features are a primary determinant of individual differences in traits
-there's a direct correspondence between a person's behaviors and what traits we can assume they have
-there's a hierarchical design that personality/personality traits can be fashioned (what traits important, etc.)

State

in a particular situation, has a lot to do with variability (has to do with emotional consequence--mood, what is going on in a certain situation)

Activities

suggestion that we can infer from someone's behavior/observable actions what type of activities they engage in and that we can determine one's traits based on this

Roles

-sociology
-roles we play/find ourselves in in our lives
-may or may not be able to feel comfortable expressing traits as strongly as might in a different situation (e.g. young child's personality in family vs. around friends)

Gordon Allport

(1897-1967)
-credited with starting personality psychology
-was the 1st trait theorist and believed traits are the basic units of personality
-thought traits actually exist/ based in the nervous system
-highlighted the healthy/organized aspects of human behavior
-this emphasis contrasted with other views at the time that emphasized aspects of behavior that are animalistic, neurotic, tension-reducing, and mechanistic (criticized psychoanalysis in this regard)
-emphasis on individual's unique behaviors and thoughts
-must consider/investigate individuals' unique personality characteristics (using trait terms)

Humanistic view

(from Gordon Allport)
person in the state of "becoming" who they are

Allport's Trait Theory

traits...
-are neuropsychic structures
-can initiate/guide consistent forms of adaptive/expressive behavior
-are common/personal
-can be studied by nomothetic or idiographic methods

neuropsychic structure

-traits exist in the nervous system
-biologically based
-traits that exist in our neurology aren't very visible (cannot see on x-ray)

adaptive and expressive behavior

-coping with challenges of day-to-day life
-adjusting to one's environment
-makes us have tendencies that adapt a certain way

common traits

traits that can be used to classify groups of people on a particular dimension

Personal traits

-predispositions
-we all have personality traits we don't share with anyone else
- more unique to the individual and includes a combo of traits

nomothetic; idiographic

Traits can be studied by both \_____ and \______ methods.

Nomothetic methods

standard method that focuses on large number of individuals and are described in terms of a common, universal set of personality traits

Allport's preferred method to study traits?

idiographic method

Idiographic method

-flexible, unique, non-standardized measurement tools (others didn't agree with Allport for measuring in this way because hard to measure each individual)
-the strategy focuses on the potentially unique individual (in-depth studies of individual persons are viewed as a path for learning about people generally)

Allport

-recognized the importance of the situation
-traits explain consistency
-situation explains variability

Allport types of traits

-common
-cardinal
-central
-secondary (disposition)

Common traits

-different categories of traits we can use to classify all people
-everyone has the traits but the amount varies
-acknowledged existence but more concerned with the personality traits that make us unique

Cardinal traits

-traits most apparent/important for particular individuals
-the most obvious traits about us that have the most impact in how we are/what we do/what motivates us
-expresses a disposition that is so pervasive and dominant in one's life that every act is traceable to its influence
-\>pervasive and dominant: effects every aspect of functioning
-\>"master motives": neuropsychic structures responsible for motivating behavior
-\>"ruling passions": so significant on how we feel/live our lives (e.g. need for power so great we need to dominate/win a board game against own child)

Central traits

-important, but control less of one's behaviors
-typical descriptors of ourselves (not as influential as cardinal traits), more characteristic of an individual
-express dispositions that cover a more limited range of situations that is true for cardinal traits (e.g. honest, kindness, assertiveness)

Secondary (disposition) traits

-less important/conspicuous, less visible
-generalized/consistent
-aspects of us not as important as central/cardinal traits
-things like preferences that don't really define a person
-possess traits with varying degrees of significance and generality (e.g. preference of pies over cake)

self

Allport: personality development centers on the "\_____," what is particularly ours, and believes our unique personality traits make us who we are.

Concept of "self"

-Allport
-absolutely individualized personality characteristics make us who we are
-personality development centers on the self; source of our traits as a product of our "self"

Functional autonomy

\-when adults are conscious of what they are doing and aren't as effected as Freud said, and behavior is based on present/conscious preferences

\-early development: peripheral motives (outside of selves) and tension reduction; when young development characterized by dependence of other people (peripheral motives) behavior is aimed at trying to survive (by having needs met and reduce tension) -adult life: shift toward self-strivings (come from personalities); doing what's important to us based on traits/personality; develop ability to be functionally autonomic

Allport's legacy

-revered
-valued contributions to personality and trait theory (respected for contribution to beginning of the field)
-lack of explanation for traits: clarified the concept of what trait is, but his idea that traits exist within the bodies as structures (neuropsychic structures) was problematic

Allport's research concerns

-no clear trait/situation link
-no support for claim of hereditary influence (traits biologically based)
-over-reliance of idiographic methods (seen as limitation because only investing and assessing using one type)
-Allport believed that individual's unique set is important but other trait theorists interested in identifying unifying sets of traits that can describe all (to greater/lesser degree), finite set of traits used to describe every person

Raymond Cattell

(1905-1998)
-Spearman and Thorndike were his mentors
-English contains many trait terms, nearly 5% of all our words, but why are there so many traits?
-a few source traits (underlying psych structures) can create what seem to be many 'different' surface traits
-a factor analysis of surface traits can reveal their underlying source traits
-came up with 16 PF (personality factors)

Factor Analysis Method

Cattell
-didn't agree with Allport in looking for uniqueness and tried to identify universal set of traits to describe everyone (to some degree, continuum)
-this was a stat tool for summarizing the ways in which a large \# of variables are correlated; premier tool used by trait theorists to identify structures of personality
-not specifically designed for trait theory
-not an idiographic method

Factor Analysis Method trait types

source traits and surface traits

Surface traits

-"on the surface" behavioral tendencies that are superficial
-how someone typically acts/tends to behave
-things you can see/observe in an individual
-Cattell was able to identify roughly 40 groups of traits that were highly intercorrelated and each grouping represented surface traits

Source traits

-Internal psychological structures that were the source, or underlying cause, of observed intercorrelations among surface traits
-some traits that are psych traits exist within us; provide a reason for surface traits (causally involved)
-responsible for surface traits that are more observable
-fewer

Cattell and trait terms

English contains many trait terms, nearly 5% of all our words, but why are there so many traits?
-trait terms: aggressive, bashful, confident, dependable, energetic, foolish, greedy, honest, intelligent, mean, proud, sensitive, vain, lazy, obedient, romantic, quiet, trustworthy, wise, understanding, etc.
-wanted to reduce number of terms used to describe people and use those terms to accurately describe every person

Factor Analysis steps

1. collect surface trait ratings from many people (self-measure, rate self on traits)
2. calculate correlations among those ratings (items)
3. extract factors from the correlation matrix (what seems to fall together? extract those so smaller \# traits)
4. calculate factor loadings (another round of factor correlations)
5. review the loadings and the name factors (only subjective part; reduces the multiple reflections of personality to a smaller set of traits, provides a basis for arguing that some traits matter more than others, helps in developing assessment devices)

Correlation

the relation of 2 variables (e.g. how are kindness and generosity related?)

Correlation coefficients

determined by strength and direction
r\= +0.37
+ \= direction of relationship (+/-)
0.37\= strength of relation (0-1)

stable

Where Cattell's 3 categories of source traits (where surface traits come from) known as the major \_______ elements of personality.

Cattell's 3 categories of source traits

1. ability traits
2. temperament traits
3. dynamic traits

Ability traits

-1/3 Cattell's source traits
-skills that allow the individual to function effectively (e.g. good judgment, intelligence)
-descriptors that have to do with skills that get through day-to-day life in a practical way, function well

Temperament traits

-1/3 Cattell's source traits
-traits involved in emotional life and stylistic quality of behavior (e.g. slowness vs. quickness, impulsiveness, etc.)
-emotions; traits like anxious, upset

Dynamic traits

-1/3 Cattell's source traits
-traits involved in motivational life, concern for striving
-what gets people to get started, set goals, stay involved with those goals
-individuals who are more/less motivated differ in dynamic traits

Cattell's legacy

-highly esteemed
-strong foundation on systematic research efforts
-16 PF (personality factors) continues to be widely used in applied settings (employers, therapy settings)

valid and reliable
-16 smallest \# needed to accurately describe every person

A personality test developed to measure traits and come up with descriptor of a person who takes 16 PF and its determined that it could be \____ and \____ because it is based in theory, on a continuum. (Cattell)

Types of data Cattell relied on

1. Q-data (self-questionnaire)
2. L-data (life record data)
3. OT-data (objective-tests data)

personality
-the 16 factor approach is not parsimonious (uses less, sparing, restrained)
-based only on theory of measurement (risky)

Work exerts little impact in contemporary \____ science

Hans Eysenck

(1916-1997)
-Born in Berlin but in 1934 and fled to England as result of Hitler regime
-most of his work done professionally in hospital settings
-initially trained in psychoanalytic theory but thought it unreliable since it could not be measured
-thought 16 PF was too many
-conducted secondary factor analysis (narrowed large \#s or traits to smaller \#s, then factor analyzed those)
-thought psychoanalytic factors lacked construct/measures of construct
-thought factors were commonly correlated (intercorrelations among factors can themselves be factor-analyzed)

3 Factor Method

(Eysenck)
-all you needed to effectively/accurately describe personality
-work was influenced by advances in stat technique and European psychologists who studied personality types by researching heredity and experimental work on classical conditioning
-started with the 2 factor model
-highly critical of psychoanalytic group because lack reliable measures
-ability to measure what you are talking about in regard to personality is important

Biological foundation of personality

Eysenck emphasized this; believed our personalities are hard-wired and biologically based

Secondary Factor Analysis

Eysenck
-stat analysis of an initial set of factors that are correlated with one another
-used to identify a simple set of factors that independent (not correlated)
-3 factors that aren't correlated

Superfactors ("super" in the sense of "high)

Eysenck
-factor analytic trait dimensions at the highest level of hierarchy of traits
-organizes certain pertinent traits that are not correlated with each other (from secondary factor analysis)
-represent continuous dimensions (low, high, everything in-between, continuum)

Introversion-Extraversion

-1/3 superfactors of Eysenck
-organizes lower-level traits such as sociability, activity, liveliness, excitability
-think of as a continuum (high/low on extraversion)
-to identify would involve items asking questions about excitability, sociability, activity level
-specific response levels (on bottom): largest number, specific behaviors that pull together to form habits, that then go together to form sociable, lively, active, assertive, sensation-seeking

Neuroticism

how emotionally stable or not someone is
-1/3 superfactors of Eysenck
-emotional stability vs. instability
-organizes traits such as anxious, depressed, moody, shy
-high \= low emotional stability
-if possess, seen as anxious person, trouble controlling emotions, experience depressive symptoms

Hippocrates/Superfactors

-gray areas: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, sanguine
-Hippocrates thought peoples' personalities were biologically based, and based on 4 humors (mind-body connections)
-emotional symptoms thought to be due to too little/much of one of humors
-provides support for contention that superfactors are biologically based

Psychoticism

-1/3 superfactors of Eysenck
-"abnormal" qualities including aggressiveness, lack of empathy, interpersonal coldness, and antisocial behavioral tendencies (disregard for rules, norms, laws-against society)
-should be taken into account when considering personality disorder/unhealthy personality development
-falling low on this is an indicator of being healthier

Measuring Superfactors

-Eysenck developed a simple, self-report to describe selves (called Eysenck Personality Questionnaire) where items designed to tap each of factors (yes/no response format- score high/medium/low on factors)
-included "lie scale items": some people try to answer in socially desirable way, tried to increase validity of personality assessment; reduce non-content responding

Lemon drop test

-objective measure used to distinguish between introverts and extraverts (put lemon juice on tongue, see how much you salivate)
-introverts produced more saliva (introverts more responsive to stimuli,) suggests biological basis to individual differences; higher levels of RAS activation stimuli which is why don't seek stimulus in social situations; more influenced by punishments in learning
-extroverts: less cortical arousal and need more stimulation to be activated, seek socially intense experiences; influenced by rewards when learning

Twins and extraversion

-twin studies suggest heredity account for some differences in extraversion
-trait has biological bias
-individual differences on continuum should be partially hereditary
-contribution in heredity stable over time

Psychopathology

1. neurotic symptoms
2. majority of neurotic patients
3. criminals and antisocial persons

Neurotic symptoms

-".." \= biology + environment
-aligned with how current thinking is
-nature and nurture
-learning of strong emotional reactions to fear
-inducing stimuli

Majority or neurotic patients

-high neuroticism (N) symptoms and low E (extraversion) scores
-if measure used in clinical settings, would suggest that someone has a type of disorder
-anxiety, mood disorder patients

Criminals and antisocial persons

-high neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism
-symptoms, problems, difficulties related to traits and nervous system functioning (how tie psychopathology into theory)

Eysenck's legacy

-held the highest standards for science while theorizing in a creative manner
-brought diverse forms of evidence to bear on questions of individual differences

Five Factor Model (Big Five)

-evidence-based approach focused on individual differences
-rooted in research, how are we different from one another?
-Costa and McCrae, 1992

Individual differences

-what was focused on in the "Big Five"
-"how do people differ from each other?"
-"Is there a set of basic human individual differences?"

What do Costa and McCrae want?

To identify taxonomy/classification system for people in research to speak the same language (be able to communicate with each other)
-supporting/proposing their model does a better job of creating that taxonomy than theorists who came before (improve Cattell's and Eysenck's work)
-desire for Big Five (5 Factor Model) to be the trait theory model everyone uses to talk about describing individuals

Big Five's analysis of 3 types of data to provide research evidence?

1. trait terms in the natural language
2. cross-cultural research
3. relation of trait questionnaires to other questionnaires

Natural language

use terms that people actually use, didn't want to make up words that mean something (more accessible)
-idea was that if use words people actually know, better able to decide whether that describes them or not (puts faith in "..." to describe personality)

Cross-cultural research

test cultural universality of their trait terms (not just in the United States)
-according to Costa and McCrae, Big 5 are universal--\>can be used to describe everyone everywhere
-methodological issue: translation (if not 1:1 translation can have effect on validity of measurement tool)

Relation of trait questionnaires to other questionnaires

other trait theories/personality theories

The Big Five- on a continuum, dimensional (OCEAN)

1. Openness to experience (O)
2. Conscientiousness (C)
3. Extraversion (Eysenck) (E)
4. Agreeableness (A)
5. Neuroticism (Eysenck) (N)

Openness to experience (O)

-1 of Big 5
-willingness to try new things, original, independent
-looks at lower level factors such as fantasy, aesthetic, feelings, actions, values

Conscientiousness (C)

-1 of Big 5
-how much attention you pay to things
-how orderly one is
-self-discipline, dutifulness, competence
-whether one is deliberate in actions
-impulsivity
-striving to achieve

Extraversion (Eysenck) (E)

-1 of Big 5
activity level, sociability, excitement seeking, positive emotions, warmth

Agreeableness (A)

-1 of Big 5
being straightforward, trustworthy, altruistic, modest, tender-minded

Neuroticism (Eysenck) (N)

-1 of Big 5
anxiety, self-consciousness, anger, hostility

DiBlas and Forzi

1999
-found extraversion (E), agreeableness (A), and conscientiousness (C) were replicated in Italian and samples they tested
-did not find neuroticism (N) or openness (O): translational issues?
-3/5 Big Five

DeRaad and Peabody

2005
-extraversion (E), agreeableness (A), and conscientiousness (C) were there (cross-linguallly recurrent) but didn't find neuroticism (N) or openness (O)
-personality factors unique for particular cultures?
-found across 11 languages

Costa and McCrae

-Big Five structure is a human universal
-this aligns with their assertion that the big five is solely biologically based (assert exist cross-culturally)

NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R)

The current edition of an objective personality test that emphasizes normal personality characteristics rather than forms of abnormality
-measures 5 factors (valid) and 6 facets
-developed by Costa and McCrae
-good reliability and validity
-agrees with other Big Five instruments
-correlates with Eysenck's inventories and Cattell's 16 PF
-personality is stable when you reach adolescence/adulthood
-scores will be similar across different NEO tests and Big Five measures
-forms of both self-ratings and observer ratings

Integration of theories

-Eysenck's extraversion and neuroticism virtually identical to extraversion and neuroticism dimensions of Big Five
-Eysenck's psychoticism corresponds to a combo of low consciousness and low agreeableness
-NEO-PI-R relates meaningfully with Q-sort

Costa and McCrae: Big Five more than descriptors?

-each factor is a universal structure
-everyone has each psych structure (trait) in varying amounts
-psych structures (traits) causally influence psych development
-factors have biological basis
-differences linked to the big five determined by genetic influences on neural structure and brain chemistry
-the 5 traits are not influenced by the environment; strongest "nature" position possible

Problematic issues (with the Big Five)

-how to link personality structures to personality processes
-claim that traits are not affected by social factors
-five-factor theory claim everyone has all 5 factors

Growth and development: longitudinal research

-evidence of stability over long periods
-personality measured by big 5 inventory stay stable
-significant correlations over repeated measures
-change is evident, despite stability
-there is a greater stability in adulthood than childhood

Growth and development

what accounts for differences across the lifespan?
-personality change?
-cohort effects? (e.g. cohort \= group of people that are about the same age in the society you grew up in)

6-Factor Model

-Big Five model had been consensus since 1980s
-6th factor suggested: honesty/humility
-individual differences in the tendency to be truthful and sincere vs. cunning and disloyal are a reliable 6th factor
-validated across 7 languages
-not yet incorporated into theory or research

Evaluation: Trait Theory

-database: excellent, gathered a lot of data and using data that lends itself to statistical procedures
-systematic: Cattell (yes), Eysenck (so-so), Costa and McCrae (not so much)
-testable: very good, all of them
-comprehensive: yes, no, describing personality/predicting what the factors mean is goal of personality theorist
-applications: yes, in re: predictions, not strong in re: clinical usefulness (do not want it to be the only aspect of the personality assessment, use other tools too)

Temperament

(Thomas and Chess, 1977)
-biologically based: temperament appears early in life before environment has chance to effect person
-individual differences: how people are different from one another (Thomas/Chess temperament styles)
-emotional and motivational tendencies: how starts off with young children, and temperament remains fairly stable over life-course
-evident early in life (Kagan and Rothbart)

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function
-frontal cortex damage
-could walk and talk
-disposition changed

Longitudinal Study Design

-popular research design in developmental psych where gather data from group of people at one point in time and then gather same data (use same assessment tools) with the same people at different point in time.. can last for long periods of time; able to determine whether psych qualities early in life endure over time (Thomas and Chess used to study temperament)
-follow 100 kids from birth to adolescence and looked at temperaments (qualities/types) to see if things that occurred when child was small, occurred over time (if endure over time, support whatever is being observed is biologically based)

New York Longitudinal Study: Infant Temperament Types

-used parental reports of reactions to a variety of situations to define variations infant temperament and based on parental supports, Thomas and Chess could define temperament types (general mood, persistence in tasks, perception, activity level, attention span)
-not self-report, but similar limitations (could be corrections due to biases of parents)

Thomas and Chess temperament types

1. Easy: playful and adaptable, children were able to be calmed/reassured easily, overall good mood, easy to entertain, took to regular feeding/sleeping schedules (routines) easily
2. Difficult: negative and not adaptable, reactive to things easy baby would have rolled along with, didn't take to routine easily (poor feeding/sleeping schedules)
3. Slow to warm up to: low reactivity and mild responses, more timid, not as easy as "easy" babies but not as difficult as "difficult" babies, able to be comfortable in situations but took a bit longer

"Goodness of Fit"

refers to the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands with which the child must cope
-interaction of biology/heredity and the environment, some parenting styles/environment can fit different temperament types at different levels

Temperament type in infancy stayed the same when tested at subsequent points in time during longitudinal study..

(as infant, toddler, child, adolescent)
Thomas and Chess believed temperament remains relatively same over life-course based on data
(difficult babies have more struggles than easy babies later in life)