SOC 227 Leadership and Collaboration Exam 1

Describe early day leadership

Leadership as scientific management (efficiency is key).

Taylorism

leaders oversee and direct subordinates to ensure subordinates' maximum productivity.

What historical events led to the way we view leadership today?

The Industrial Revolution and Age of Enlightenment

Describe present day leadership

Leadership is a process by which a person influences a group of individuals, to establish and achieve a common goal

Trait Leadership

certain individuals have special INNATE characteristics or qualities that differentiate them from non-leaders

Process Leadership

leadership resides in the context of the interaction between leaders and followers. Leadership can be LEARNED.

Assigned Leadership

based on occupying a position within an org

Emergent Leadership

based on others' perceptions of who is the most influential group member, regardless of title

Is there a difference between a manager and a leader?

Yes

Manager

Acts as a day to day problem solver. Major concern is to control the operations of an org efficiently

Leader

Focus is on developing new approaches/options for the future. Major concern is to inspire others to follow a vision for the org. INSPIRES

Hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (I knew it all along).

Bandwagon Effect

The tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people do the same.

Regression to the mean

The tendency for extreme performances to become more "average" over time

Post hoc fallacy

false assumption that because one event occurred before another event, it must have caused that event

Overconfidence Bias

The tendency to overestimate our knowledge, ability or performance.

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Independent Variables

A variable we assume influences or creates changes in another variable (the DV)

Dependent Variables

A variable we assume is influenced by, or changed as a result of another variable (the IV)

Null Hypothesis

states there is no relationship between the variables of interest

Alternative Hypothesis

usually, this is the one the researcher predict - that there IS a difference

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables. Variable X and variable Y change or vary simultaneously

Causation

A cause and effect relationship in which one variable controls the changes in another variable. Changes in X result in (cause) changes in Y

Reverse causality

a situation in which the researcher believes that A results in a change in B, but B, in fact, is causing A

Spurious Relationship

When two variables are not actually related, but appear to be related due to the effect of a third variable. E.g, number of company coffee purchases and number of workplace relationships.

How can we establish causation in an experiment?

Random assignment, procedural control

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Procedural Control

All other variables except IV held constant. Diffs between conditions thus must be caused by IV, not extraneous variables.

Experiments

researcher manipulates variables to observe effects in another variable, while holding constant all other variables.

Surveys

Study participants answer a series of questions that the researcher is interested in

What are some drawbacks of surveys?

difficult to establish causality, people don't always know why they hold certain attitudes and people lie sometimes.

Field Research

The researcher participates by observing what is happening in the setting as it takes place.

Overt

Done or shown openly

Covert

hidden; undercover

What are some benefits of field research?

rich source of data, insider's point of view

What are some drawbacks of field research?

difficult to establish causality, low generalizability

What are hallmarks of experiments?

1. random assignment 2. procedural control

Audit studies

research carried out by social scientists to measure the extent to which hiring practices are discriminatory

Random Sample

method of selecting from a population in which each person has an equal probability of being selected

Convenience sample

choosing individuals who are easiest to reach

What is trait approach leadership?

Focus is entirely on the leader. Identifies what traits leaders exhibit and looks for who has these traits

What are the Big Five?

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

What is the correlation between the Big Five and leadership?

Organizations use personality tests to find the right people in order to increase effectiveness.

Brain Structure and leadership

A percentage of individual differences in leadership can be attributed to genetics. Differences in serotonin (regulates emotions (higher)) or cortisol (the stress hormone (lower)) might affect the Big 5.

Intelligence

a major predictor of leadership attainment and performance. Indicator of presidential greatness.

Emotional Intelligence

Ability to understand one's own feelings, express and regulate emotions, connect with people and understand their emotions (empathy)

Physiognomy

Physical attractiveness/appearance. Consistently predicts followers' perceptions of a leader, and attaining leadership (rather than actual effectiveness).

Height and Leadership

Positive correlation between height and measures of status and leadership. When you think of leaders, you think of tall people.

Vocal Pitch and Leadership

Vocal pitch accurately signals body size to listeners communicating that the leader is strong. Low pitch is desirable for leadership in both men and women.

Where do these developments about height and vocal pitch come from?

Human brain has evolved to be good at solving problems that threaten our survival and reproductive success. Our biology.

Evolved psychological mechanisms (EPMs)

cognitive or behavioral adaptations that developed through natural selection to solve recurring problems faced by ancestors

The Mismatch Hypothesis

many modern behavioral/social problems may be due to mismatch between the environment of our ancestors and that of today

What are some benefits of the trait approach?

Intuitively appealing, Credibility: research support since the 1900s, Highlights the leadership component in the leadership process, Provides benchmarks for what to look for in leaders.

What are some limitations of the trait approach?

No universal trait predicts leadership in all situations, Highly subjective (changes over time, culture), too narrow/simple, Potential for bias, Often, a better predictor of whether leadership emerges (or not) of how leaders are perceived than distinguishing who will be truly effective (or not), and Not very useful for training/development

Behavioral Approach

Emphasis on the behavior of the leader; what leaders do and how they act (their leadership style)

Task Behaviors

behaviors used by leaders to get the job done

Relationship Behaviors

Help subordinates feel comfortable with themselves, each other, and the situation

Ohio State Studies on Leadership

- Move from personalities to actions

- How often do leaders engage in X behaviors? Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)

- Creates two clusters of leadership (task and relationship)

- clusters are distinct and independent

University of Michigan studies on Leadership

- Impact of leaders' behavior on groups' performance (not just what leaders do)

- organized on a continuum (which one's better)

Country Club Management

High concern for people, low concern for production think Michael Scott

Team Management

high concern for people, high concern for production

Middle of the Road Management

adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level

Impoverished Management

low concern for people, low concern for production

Authority-Compliance Management

low concern for people, high concern for production think Dwight in fire drill episode.

The third potential concern

Understanding the environment, finding innovative ways to adapt to it, implementing changes in strategies, products, or processes

What are some benefits of the behavioral approach?

◦ Shift from traits to behaviors and actions

◦ Supported by broad range of work

◦ Key conceptual map to think about leadership

What are some drawbacks of the behavioral approach?

◦ Again, little focus on the situation

◦ What style is associated with performance outcomes? Implies high-high, but lack of support

Situational Approach

Focuses on leadership in different situations. Less focus on leaders and more on followers.

Situational Leadership Model

To be an effective leader, you have to adapt to the development level of followers and your leadership style.

Directive Behaviors

set goals, assign tasks, show how to do things, communication is one way

Supportive Behaviors

expressing concern for subordinates and looking out for their best interests, communication is two way

Directing Leader (S1)

high directive, low support, emphasis on goal achievement (Think Devil Wears Prada)

Coaching Leader (S2)

high directive, high supportive think coaches

Supporting Leader (S3)

high support, low task, less emphasis on goals (think Michael Scott)

Delegating Leader (S4)

low support, low task

Developmental levels

a measure of followers competence and commitment

Directive Follower (D1)

low competence, high commitment, (eager) think new employees

Coaching Follower (D2)

higher competence, low commitment think, need coach to support and direct students with senioritis

Supporting Follower (D3)

competence is higher, commitment can vary, followers know more but unsure if they can do it by themselves think students graduating

Delegating Follower (D4)

high competence, high commitment, followers who are leaders too, hands-off leader

What are some benefits of the situational approach?

useful for developing successful leaders, practical, flexibile (No preferable style for all situations) and emphasis on followers and their needs.

What are some drawbacks of the situational approach?

can we clearly define their commitment and competence, what other situations matter, is it possible to be the right kind of leader for every person