Understanding Self-Concept and Personality Development

What is self-concept?

The idea of the self constructed from the beliefs one holds about oneself and the responses of others.

At what age do infants typically recognize themselves as distinct from the world?

Around 18 months, though this can vary.

How can self-recognition in infants be tested?

By placing a mark on the child's face and analyzing their reaction when they see themselves in a mirror.

What developmental milestones occur in children aged 2-3 regarding self-identity?

They begin identifying themselves by age and gender and in the context of their family.

What cognitive ability is demonstrated through pretend play in early childhood?

The ability to recognize oneself.

What are self-referential pronouns, and why are they significant?

They are pronouns that refer to oneself, indicating a developing self-concept.

What influences the self-concept during the pre-pubescent stage (ages 3-12)?

It is based on talents and skills, as well as social awareness and comparison with peers.

What is the 'private self' and how can it manifest in children?

It is a developmental aspect of self-awareness that can manifest as an imaginary friend.

What key social development occurs during adolescence?

Taking perspective and developing objective awareness, leading to self-consciousness.

What is evaluation apprehension, and how can it affect adolescents?

It is the discomfort in anticipating social interactions, which can result in shyness and social anxiety.

What is self-schemata?

A cognitive representation of self-concept that is key in social interaction.

What are possible selves?

Schemas for future selves that inspire future behavior, including the ideal self and ought self.

How does self-esteem vary across different life stages?

In early childhood, it relates to expectations and reassurance; in later childhood, it relates to social comparison; and in adolescence, it involves internal standards regarding self-concept.

What impact does failure feedback have on individuals with low self-esteem?

They may perform poorer in subsequent tasks and are more likely to give up due to the connection between self-view and external feedback.

What behaviors are associated with high self-esteem?

Enhanced self-concept through risk-taking and striving for success.

What strategies do individuals with low self-esteem use to protect their self-concept?

Defense pessimism and self-handicapping.

What is self-esteem variability?

The magnitude of short-term fluctuations in self-esteem.

What is body-dysmorphic disorder?

A preoccupation with perceived defects in physical appearance, linked with low self-esteem and compulsive behaviors.

What is social identity?

The way in which one presents oneself to others.

What are the two aspects of identity discussed in the notes?

Continuity (stability in identity) and contrast (aspects that make one different).

What is an identity crisis?

Anxiety or discomfort about defining individuality and social reputation.

What are identity deficits?

When identity is not fully formed, leading to susceptibility to external influences.

What are identity conflicts?

Incompatibility between two or more aspects of one's identity, common in adolescents.

How can identity conflicts be resolved?

By deciding which values are important and transforming them into desires and goal-accomplishing behaviors.

What is evocation in the context of social psychology?

Evocation refers to how effectively one is able to evoke a response in others.

What is manipulation in relationships?

Manipulation involves strategies used to persuade or influence others to fulfill a desire.

What traits were found to be most favored in romantic relationships according to a study of 10,000 participants?

The most favored traits were love and mutual attraction.

What traits are considered less important but still favored in romantic relationships?

Dependability, emotional stability, and pleasing disposition.

What is the Attraction Similarity Theory?

It suggests that personality overlap between partners is common and often successful in relationships.

What does assortative mating refer to?

Assortative mating refers to the tendency for individuals to pair with others who have similar traits.

What is the Complementary Needs Theory?

This theory posits that 'opposites attract' in romantic relationships.

How does proximity influence romantic relationships?

Romantic relationships are commonly formed within the same geographical location.

What did the Self, Partner and Independent Reporting experiment by Buss (1990) reveal?

It showed that people who score high on a particular trait prefer partners high in the same trait, indicating that social preference plays a key role.

What personality traits contribute to relationship satisfaction?

Relationships are often more satisfying when individuals are high in agreeableness, emotional stability, openness, and conscientiousness.

What is the Violation of Desire Theory?

It suggests that a lack of close match between one's ideal mate and the actual personality of a mate can lead to relationship issues.

What is hostile attribution bias?

It is the tendency to infer hostile intent in others' uncertain behavior.

What are the strongest personality predictors of relationship upset?

Low agreeableness and high emotional instability (neuroticism) are the strongest predictors.

What is expectancy confirmation in relationships?

It refers to the phenomenon where beliefs about another person may cause them to evoke actions consistent with those beliefs.

What are some manipulation tactics used in relationships?

Manipulation tactics include reason, charm, pleasure induction, coercion, and regression.

What characterizes Machiavellianism in interpersonal relationships?

Machiavellianism is characterized by strategic manipulativeness, indifference to morality, and a calculated focus on self-interest.

What is the Dark Triad?

The Dark Triad consists of high levels of psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism.

What is the Dark Tetrad?

The Dark Tetrad includes high levels of psychopathy, Machiavellianism, narcissism, and sadism.

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Sex refers to the biological classification of individuals as male, female, or intersex, while gender is the socio-cultural interpretation of these classifications.

What are gender stereotypes?

Gender stereotypes are beliefs about how men and women differ or should differ, versus actual differences.

What is gender identity?

Gender identity is the inherent, deep-felt sense of who one is regarding their gender.

What is inhibitory control in children?

Inhibitory control is the capacity to control inhibitions, such as resisting impulses.

What is perceptual sensitivity and how does it differ between genders?

Perceptual sensitivity is the capacity to recognize faint stimuli. Girls often have higher perceptual sensitivity than boys.

What is surgency and which gender tends to exhibit it more?

Surgency refers to the tendency towards high-intensity pleasure and reward seeking. Boys often exhibit higher surgency than girls.

What is negative affectivity and what are the gender differences associated with it?

Negative affectivity involves experiencing negative emotions. There are no significant overall differences, but girls often show higher fearfulness while boys show higher anger.

How do women and men differ in extraversion according to the Big Five personality traits?

Women are higher in gregariousness, while men are higher in activity level and assertiveness.

In terms of agreeableness, what are the differences between women and men?

Women are higher in trusting and tender-mindedness and smile more often, while men are higher in physical aggression.

What are the differences in openness between genders?

There are no major differences in sub-facets of openness; however, women are slightly higher in 'feelings' (emotional awareness) and men are slightly higher in 'ideas' (intellectual curiosity).

What does the data suggest about neuroticism in men and women?

The data is mixed, but women tend to be higher in anxiety.

What are the gender differences in conscientiousness?

There are no major differences in sub-facets of conscientiousness, but women are slightly higher in order.

How does the diagnosis of depression differ between genders?

Women are diagnosed with depression at a much higher rate (2:1), often reporting increased appetite/weight changes, crying, and emotional pain, while men report more anger and social withdrawal.

What are the suicide attempt and completion rates between genders?

Women attempt suicide at a higher rate (3:1), but men die by suicide at higher rates (4:1) due to using more lethal methods and seeking help less.

What factors contribute to higher suicide rates among transgender Canadians?

Exacerbated social exclusion and isolation lead to significantly higher rates of suicide among transgender Canadians.

What protective factors can reduce suicide risk for transgender individuals?

Protective factors include inclusion, parental support, identity documents congruent with one's identity, and social support.

What are the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional components of gender stereotypes?

Gender stereotypes consist of cognitive components (beliefs about gender), behavioral components (actions associated with gender), and emotional components (feelings related to gender roles).

What is socialization theory in the context of gender roles?

Socialization theory suggests that certain gender roles are reinforced through media and toys given to children, leading them to model behaviors of the same-sex parent.

What does social role theory propose about men and women?

Social role theory posits that men and women differ in occupational and family roles, with men typically in 'breadwinner' roles and women in 'homemaker' roles.

How does hormonal theory explain sex differences in behavior?

Hormonal theory links sex differences in testosterone to traditional behaviors and personality traits, suggesting that higher testosterone in men is associated with aggression.

What does evolutionary theory suggest about sex differences?

Evolutionary theory predicts that sexes differ in response to different adaptive problems, with men adopting more dominant and aggressive traits due to ancestral hunting roles.

What is cultural variation in the context of personality?

Cultural variation involves analyzing within-group similarities and between-group differences in personality traits.

What is evoked culture?

Evoked culture considers how different environments trigger different phenomena, such as physical and social environments.

What is the underlying universal mechanism that allows differences to manifest?

The capacity for differences to manifest.

How do environmental differences influence the underlying universal mechanism?

They affect how the mechanism is activated.

What are some examples of environmental differences that can activate the universal mechanism?

Food supply and sharing, mating strategies, harsh childcare, and erratic resource provision.

How do honours, insults, and aggression relate to economic maintenance?

They are dependent on how the economy is maintained.

What is transmitted culture?

Representation in at least one person's mind that is transmitted to others, such as moral values.

What are the two cultural orientations discussed in the notes?

Collectivism and Individualism.

What characterizes collectivism?

A focus on relationships, interdependence, and communion.

What characterizes individualism?

A focus on uniqueness and being more separate from the group.

What is self-construal?

The concept of self as independent of or interdependent with others.

What is the process of acculturation?

Adapting to the way of life of a new culture, affecting cultural identity and self-identity.

What is self-enhancement in the context of cultural identity?

The tendency to describe and present oneself with positive or socially valued attributes.

How does social class affect personality variation?

Individuals from lower social classes tend to show higher levels of obedience compared to those from higher classes, who are often more self-directed.

How does historical era influence cultural behavior?

It affects the social and economic status of a society, influencing behaviors like frugality or looseness.

What are cultural universals in emotional experience?

Similarities in the capacity to recognize emotional expressions; types of emotions are often universal, though terms and expressions vary.

What are some universal traits across cultures?

Warmth and dominance, and most of the Big 5 personality traits (agreeableness, neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness), with some debate on openness.

What is stress defined as?

A subjective feeling due to uncontrollable or threatening events.

What is the interactional model in personality and illness?

It posits that personality moderates the relationship between stress and illness, affecting coping ability and illness susceptibility.

What does the transactional model describe?

It describes the connections between personality and stress, influencing how one deals with stress and event perception.

What is the health and behavior model?

It mediates behavior, linking personality to health-promoting or degrading behaviors.

What is the predispositional model?

It links personality and illness through an underlying predisposition that accounts for both.

What does the illness-behavior model focus on?

How personality impacts the interpretation of experiences related to illness.

What is the degree to which we perceive and attend to bodily sensations?

It refers to how much we notice and focus on physical sensations.

How do individuals interpret and label sensations as illness?

It is the degree to which a person identifies bodily sensations as indicative of illness.

What is the relationship between neuroticism and health?

Higher levels of neuroticism are negatively related to health; individuals tend to focus more on bodily sensations and perceive them as illness.

What is healthy neuroticism?

It combines neuroticism and conscientiousness, leading to hypervigilance that results in seeking treatment.

What are stressors?

Different events or situations that evoke stress, which must be extreme in some manner.

What are the characteristics of stressors?

They produce opposing tendencies and are perceived as uncontrollable.

What are the stages of General Adaptation Syndrome?

1. Alarm stage: fight or flight response. 2. Resistance stage: body uses resources at a high rate. 3. Exhaustion stage: resources are depleted, increasing illness susceptibility.

What is a major event in the context of stress?

A significant occurrence that causes stress and requires major adjustments, not necessarily negative.

What are daily hassles?

Minor stressors that, when sustained over time, can lead to psychological and physical symptoms.

What is acute stress?

Stress resulting from sudden demands, such as a deadline.

What is episodic acute stress?

Repeated episodes of acute stress that can have serious consequences and may become chronic.

What is traumatic stress?

A major occurrence of acute stress that can have long-lasting effects, potentially leading to PTSD.

What is chronic stress?

Enduring stress that does not remit and can lead to serious diseases.

What are some psychological and physical symptoms of sustained daily hassles?

Headaches, lower immune system function, and higher gastrointestinal upset.